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THE

2' G U N G

MILL-WRIGHT & MILLER'S

E-

PART «— ji,iVl5ELLlSHED WITH TWENTY FIVE PLATES.

CONTAINING,

Part I.— Techanics and Hydraulics;
fhewin; , sir t'.e old,a:ideilablilhing
anew I_;;!c... if theoiie; of water-mills,
by 'vhlci: 'Wr: :j,)w"er ot' luili-ieati and
Che ede.-^s tncyviH prpduce may be af-
ciiitained bv calculation.
-Part li..-i-i5.uies tor applying the theo-
ries to pra^lici ; tables for proportion-
ing m'>ii , !G tae power and faii of the
waCc- , iiid luies for finding pitch cir-
cie"^, -.nth tables fioni 6 to 136 cogs.

Part Ilx — ^Oi/e.iions for conltrufting
and uiing all the authors patented im-
provements in mills.

jj Part IV.— rThe art of manufafturing meal

' and flour in all its parts, as pradlifed by

J the mofl Ikilful millers in America.

Part V. — The Praftical Mill-wright ;

containing inllruftions for building

mills, with tables of their proportions

fuitablc for all falls from three to

thirty-fix feet.

APPENDIX.

Containing rules for difcovering new im-
provements— exemplified in improving
the art of thralhing and cleaning grain,
hulling rice, varming rooms, and vent-
ing fmoke by chimneys, &:c.

By OLIVER EVANS, of Phi ladelphia.

PHILADELPHIA:

PRINTED FOR, AND SOLD BY THE A UTHOR, No. 215,
KORTH SECOND STREET.

1795.

Dijlrid of Pennfylvania — to wit:

BE it remembered, that on the nineteenth day of January, in the nineteenth year of the
Independence of the United States of Ainerica, OLIVER EVANS, ofthefaid diftrid, hath
depofited in this office the title of a Book, the right whereof he claims, as Author and Pro-
prietor, in the following words — to wit :

" The Yeung Mill-wright and Miller's Guide : in five parts, embelliflied with twenty-
five plates, &c. By Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia" — in confonnity to the aft of the Con-
grefs of the United States, intituled, " An at^for the encouragement of learning, by fecur-
ing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of fuch copies, dur-
ing the times therein mentioned.'''

SAMUEL CALDWELL,
Clerk of the Diftrift of Pennfylvania,

t> RE F A G * E.

HE reafon <vhy a book of this kind although fo much want-

i ed did not fooner appear, may be — becaufe they who have been
'' Verfed in fcience and literature, have not had pradice and expe-
i rience in the arts; and they who have had pradice and experimental
>^knowledge, have not had time to acquire fcience and theory, thofe
^^ceffary qualifications for compleating the fyflem, and which are
^;not to be found in any one man. Senfible of my deficiences in
J both, I fhould not have uridertaken it, w<as I not interelled in the
1 explanation of my own inventions. I have applied to fuch books
and men of fcience as I expeded afliftaince from, ill forming a
fyftem of theory ; and to pradical mill-wrights and millers for
^the pradice ; but finding no authors who had joined pradice and
Inexperience with theory, (except Smeaton whom I have quoted)
'finding many of their theories to be erroneous, and lofing the af-
fiftance of the late ingenious William Waring, the only fcientific
s^rharader of my acquaintance, who acknowledged that he had in-
^efligated the principles and powers of water ading on mill-wheels,
~^I did not meet the aid I expeded in that part.
^ Wherefore it is not fafe to conclude that this work is without
error — but that it contains many, both theoriticai, pradical, and
\ grammatical ; is the moft natural, fafe, and rational fuppofition.
i The reader whofe mind is free and unbiafl'ed by the opinion of
* others, will be mofi likely to attain the truth. Under a momen-^
|ltary difcouragement, finding I had far exceeded the prefcribed
'limits, and doubtful vv'hat might be its fate, I left out feveral ex-
penfive draughts, of mills, &:c. — But fmce it went to prefs the
profpeds have become fo encouraging that I may hope it will be
kwell received : Therefore I requell the reader, who may prove
;-^ny part to be erroneous, can point out its defeds, propofe amend-
>ments, or additions; to inform me thereof by letter ; that I may
be enabled to corred, enrich, and enlarge it, in cafe it bears ano-
ther edition, and I will gratefully receive their communications r
For if what is kncu'n on thefe fubieds bv the different in^jenious-

PREFACE,

pradlitioners in America could be colleded in one work, it would
be precious indeed, and a fufficient guide to fave thoufands of
pounds from being ufelefsly expended. For a work of this kind
wilt^never be perfeded by the abilities and labours of one man.

The pracftical part received from Thomas Ellicott will doubtlefs
be ufeful, confidering his long experience and known genius.

Comparing this with other original, difEcuit works, with
equally expenfive plates, the price will be found to be low.

I CONTENTS.

PART h V;;

MECHANICS.
Articles —

1. AXIOMS, or felf evident truths. - - -< Paget

2. Of the firfl: principles of mechanical motion. - - - 2

3. — elafticity, its power unknown. - - - - 4

4. — motion, abfolute and relative, ,- ' - - 5

5. — do. accelerated and retarded. - ^- 6

6. — the momentum, or quantity of motion. - - ibid.

7. — general laws of motion. - - "7

8. — the momentum of elaftic and non-elaftic bodied in motion. - ^

9. — laws of motion and force, of falling bodies ; table and fcale of their mo-
tion. - - - - 14

10. — the laws of motion of bodies defcending inclined plains, and curved far-
faces. - _ . . - 20
12. — the motion of projeftiles. - - - 21
13. — circular motion and central forces, - - 22
14. — ; centres of motion, magnitude and gravity. - - . 25
IS- — general laws of mechanical powers, - - 27
16 — 21. Of levers, fimple and compound ; their laws applicable to mill-
wheel's ; general rule for calculating their power. - 20
21. Power decreafes as the motion increafes. - "35
Z2 — 23. No power gained by enlarging underfhot -wheels, nor by double gear-
ing mills. - - - - 36
24. The pulley, 25 the axle and wheel, 26 the inclined plain, 27the wedge, and
28 the fcrew. - - - . ^g
;50. The fty-whcel, its ufe. - - - 42
31 — 33. Of friftion, its laws, and the inventions to reduce it. 44
34. Of maximums, or the greateft effed: of machines. - - 48
J5 — 37. Old theory of the motion of underfliot-wheels inveftigated ; new the-
ory propofed ; fcale of experiments. - - 50
^3 — 39. William Waring's new theory. ■ - 59

\o. ■ theory doubted. - - 63

ji — 42. Search for a true theory on a new plan, and one eftabliihed agreeing
with praftice. - - - - 65

!}3 — 44. The maximum motion of overfhot- wheels, with a fcale thereof. 75: .

HYDRAULICS.

\5 — 4.7- Laws of the motion and effeiSs offpouting fluids ; their application tor

underftiot-mllls. - - - - 80

\% — 50. Hydroftatic paradox ; on which is founded a theorem for finding the

preffiire of water on any furface. - - . 87

rt. Rule for finding the velocity of fpoutiiig water. - - 89

;2. Rule for finding the effeft of any gate of water on underfhot-wheels. 90

<3 — 54- Water applied by gravity; the power thereof on the principles of

overfiiot-mills, equal in theoryto the bed application poffible. - 92

CONTENTS*

Articles—, Page*

55. Fridlion of the aperture on fpouting fluids. - "97

56. Prefliire of the lair the caufe of fluids rifing in pumps and eyphons, &c. 98;

57. Direftions for pump-makers, with a table. - - 100

58. Tubes for conveying water over hills and under valleys. - 102
S^. Paradoxical mill explained, that will not move empty ; the diiference of

force of indefinite and definite quantity of water. - - ibid.

60. The motion of bread and pitch-back wheels. They do not run before the

gravity of the water on account of the impulfe. - - 104

,61. Simple rule for calculating the power of a mill -feat. - - 107

62. Theory compared, with a table of experiments of 18 mills in pta&.ite,
and found to agree. - _ . - - no

63. Rules for proportioning thefize of mill-ftones to the power ; with a table
of their ai-eas, powers required, and quantity ground, &c. - 118

The furface pafled by mill-ftones of diflferent fize and motion. - i ; 9

64 — 65. Of digging canals ; with their proper fall and fize to fuit theftones. 122'

66. Of air-pipes, to prevent trunks from burfting. - - 226

67. Smeaton's experiments concerning underfhot-mills. - - 128

68. . experime/its concerning overfliot-mills. - 145

6^. ^ experiments concerning wind-mills, - - - 154

PART II. «

70. OF underfhot-mills, with a table containing the motion of th6 water and:
wheels, and proportion of the gears, fuitable to any head from i to 25 feet,
both double and fingle gear; the quantity of water required to turn them,
and the fize of the gate and canal. - "3

71. Of tub-mills, with a table fhewing the diameter of the wheels td luit any'
fize ftone, or head of water. - - - ix!

72. Of breaft and pitch-back wheels, with a table complete for them. 1 7'

73. Of overfliotmills, with tables for them. ... 25
Ofmills moved by re-a6lion. - - - - 33

74. Rules for calculatingthe motion of wheels^ and humberofcogs to product
the defired motion. - - - - 35i

75. Rules for finding the pitch circles. - - - 4d

76. A true, fimple, and expeditiousmethod for finding the diameter of the pitch
circle, with a table fhewing the diameter of pitch circles, &c. 41

77. Rules for meafuring garners, hoppers, &c. - - 46

78. Of the diiferent kinds ofgears and forms of cogs. - - 48
79 — 81. Of fpur, face, and bevel gears. - - 49

82. Of mntching wheels, to make them wear even and well. - 56

83. Theories of rolling-fcreens and fans for cleaning the grain, improved appli-
cation of them. - - - 5 7

84. Of gudcreons, the caufe of their heating and getting loofe, with the reme-
dies therefor. - - - - 60

85. On building mill-dams. - - - 64
,86. On laying foundations and building mill- wails. ~ - 67

PART IIL

87. GEN ER AL acco'-mt of the newiiiiprov-riTnts. - - 7;^

88. Particular defcription of the macijine.s. - - 7.?

89. Application of the machines in the pvocefi: of la.inufufturJng ^lour. • 7I

CONTENTS.

Articles— ^ Page*

JO. Of elevating grain from fhips. - - - 82

^i. A mill for grinding parcels. ... 85

)2. A grid-mill improved. _ . 88

>3. Of elevating from fhips and ftore-houfesby a horfc. - 90

)4. Of an elevator wrought by a man. - _ - 9*

>5. Conftruftion of the wheat elevator, particularly direfted.^ - 97
,6 — I 00. Of the meal elevator, the meal conveyer, the grain conveyer, the

.hopper-boy, and the drill. - - - - i^io

[01. Of the utility of the machines. - - - ^ J2I

02. Bills of materials, both of wood and iron, &c. to be prepared for building
the machines. - - - - 127

03. A mill for hulling and cleaning rice. - - 13*

PART IV.

04. THE principles on which grinding is performed, explained. 139

05. Of the draught neceflary to be giveuto the furrows of mill-ftones. 143

06. Diredlions for facing new mill-ltones. - - 149

07. Of hanging mill-ftones. * - - 151

08. Of regulating the feed and water in grinding. - - I54

09. Rules for judging of good grinding. - - 155

10. Ofdreilingandfharpening the (tones when dull, - - I57

1 1 . Of the molt proper degree of fmenefs for flour. - - 1 58

12. Ofgarlic, with diretitions for grinding wheat mixed therewith; and for
dreffingthe ftones fuitabl'e therfeto. - - - 160

13. Of grinding over the middlings, fluff and bran, or fhorts, if neceflary, to
make the moft of them. - - - ^. - 163

1 4. Of the quality of the mill-ftones, to fuit the quality of the wheat. 1 66

15. Of bolting-reels and cloths, with diredions for bolting and infpeding
flour. - - - - V69

16. Direftions for keeping the mill, and the bulinefs of it in good order, r 73

1 7. Peculiar accidents by which mills are fubjeft to catch fire. / 75
rS. Obfervations on improving of mill-feats. - - 175

PART V, See the contents at the beginning of it.

CONTENTS of the APPENDIX.

lules for difcovering new improvements — exemplified — I. In improving the
art of thrafliing grain. — II. Cleaning do. by wind. — III. Diftillation of fpi-
rits. — IV. In venting fmoke from roomsby chimneys.— V. Warming rooms
by fire to fave fuel. — VI. Hulling and cleaning rice. — VII. Saving fliips
from finking at fea. — VIII. Preferving fruits and liquors from putrefaftion
and fermentation.

EXPLANATION OF THE TECHNICAL TERMS, &c. USED IN THIS

WORK,

Aperfeure — The opening by which water
iffiies .

Area— Plain furface, fuperficial contents.

Atraofphere — The furrounding air.

Algebraic figns ufed are -|- for more, or
addition. — Lefs, or fubftrafted. X
Multiplication. .|. Divifion. 3: Equality.
l^' The fquare root of. 86 2 for 86 fqua-
red, 883 for 88 cubed.

Byquadrate — A number twice fquared : the
byquadrate of 2 is 16,

Corollary, Inference.

Cuboch— A name for the unit or interger
of power, being one cubic foot of water
multiplied into one foot perpendicular de-
fcent.

Cubic foot of water— What a veflel one foot
wide and one foot deep will hold.

Cube of a number — The produft of the num-
ber multiplied by itlelf twice.

Cube root of a iiumber — Say of 8, is the num-
ber, which niultiplied into itfelf twice will
produce 8, viz. 2. Or it is that number
by which you divide a number twice to
quote itfelf.

Decimal point , iet at the left hand of a
figure fhews the whole number to be di-
vided into tens, as ,5 for 5 tenths ; ,57
for 57 hundredths ; ,577 for 577 thoufandth
parts.

Equilibrio, Equilibrium — Equipoife, or ba-

" Jance of weight.

Elaftic, Springing.

Fri(ftion-T-The aft of rubbing together.

Gravity— ^That tendency all matter has to

fall downwards.
Hydroftatics— fcience of weighing fluids.
Hydraulics— Water-works, the fcience of

motion of fluids.
Impulfe — Force communicated by a ftroke.
Impetus— Violent eitbrt of a body inclining

to move.
Momemtnm— The force of a body in motion.
Maximum— ^Greatett poffible.
Non-elaftic' — Without ipring.
Oftuble- — ^Eight times told.
Paradox — Contrary to appearance.
Percuffion — Striking a ftroke, impulfe,
Problem: — A queftion.
Quadruple — Four times, fourfold.
Radius— Half the diameter of a circle.
Right Angle — A line fquare, or perpendicu-
lar to another.
Squared-r-Multiplied into itfelf; 2 fquared

is 4.
Theory — Speculative plan exifting only in

tfee mind. "^

Tangent — A line perpendicular or fquare

with a radius touching the periphery of a

circle.
Theorem — Pofition of an acknowledged

truth.
Velocity? — Swiftnefs of motion.
Virtual or effeftive defcent of water : See

Art. 61.

•«S>o^<^)".

SCx-^LE from which the FIGJURES are draAvn.

PLATE IT, Fig. it, 13 — S feet to an Incli; fig. 19 — lofcettor.n inch.

Ill, Fig. 19, ::r — z^^ 26—10 feet to ditto.

IV, Fig. 28, 29—33, 31, 32, 33—10 feet ditto

VI, Fig. I — 13 feet to an inch ; lig. 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 , two feet ditto.

Vir,Fig.i2, 13, 14, 15 — twoieetto an inch ; fig. [6, ten ditto.

X. Fig. I, 2 — 18 feet ditto; fig. H, I in fig. i— four feet to an inch.

XI. Fig. I, 2, 3 — two feet ditto ; fig. 6, 8, one ibot to ditto.

t^iP-> «<^ (-i?-> t<5>^ t<s>> t<:?i t(S>5 «<?'^ v:?^ v:^ «<:P^ <k:5^

THE

Y 0 U N G

Mill-wrighf s & Miller's

GUIDE.

PART THE FIRST.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS. Art. l.

"OTION may be faid to be the Beginning or
Foundation of all Mechanics, becaiife no
Mechanical Operation can be performed without
Motion*

AXIOMS, or Self-evident Truths,

I . A body at reft m^II continue fo for ever, un-
lefs it is put in motion by fome force imprefled.*
A body in motion will continue fo for ever,
with the fame velocity in the fame diredlion, un-
lefs refifted by fome forcc*t

* This fluggifli, inaftive principle, or force, by which a body inclines
to a ftate of reft, is called Inertia.

t The fame principle of inertia, which inclines a body to remain at reft,
alfo inclines it to continue in motion for ever, if once put in motion, and
that in a right-lined direiflion, unlefs changed by fome force : therefore no
l:'ody, moving in a ftrait line, can be turned into a curve line, but by fome
force ; the confideration of which may lead us to the knowledge of the
true principles of fome milk. See the latter part of art. 73.

I '- B

2 MECHANICS. Chap, I.

Art. I. 2. The impulfe that gives motion, and the re-

fiftance that deftroys it, are equal.

4. Caufes and eiTetts are equal, or diredly pro-
portional.

POSTULATUMS, or Pofitions without Proof.

A quadruple impulfe, or moving power, is re-
quilite to communicate double velocity to a bo-
dy*; therefore a quadruple refiftance is requiiite
to deflroy double velocity in a body, by axiom

The impulfe we may call power, and the re-
fiftance that it overcomes, the effect produced by
that powet-.

COROLLAHY.

Confequently, the powers of bodies in motion,
to produce effefts, are as the fquares of their velo-
, cities ; that is, a double velocity, in a moving bo-
dy^ produces 4 times the effedl.

Art. 2. Of th£ Principles of Mechanics.

THERE are two principles, which are the
foundation of all mechanical motion and mechani-
cal powers, viz. Gravity andElafticity ; or Weiglit
and Spring.

By one or the other of thefe principles or pow-
ers every mechanical operation is performed.

* In the courfe of this work, T fliallfliew, that a quadruple impulfe pro-
duces Only double velocity. See art. 7 and 46. We ftiould follow philofo-
phers only in the paths of truth ; becaufe, if all men are fubjeft to err, even
the moft eminent philofophers may have erred.

If a theory will not agree with praftice, we may fufpeft it is not true ;
and the theory of the momentum or force of bsdies in motion, being as
their velocities fimply, does not agree with praftice, with refped: to the
efTecls they produce, either in circular motion, art. 30, falling bodies, art.
9, fpoutin? fluids, art. 45, wind on mill-fails, art. 69, therefore we have
reafoii to fufped that this theory may not be true, in every refped.

Chap, /. MECHANICS.

Gravity, in the extent of the word, means ^^^- =•
every fpecies of attraction ; but more efpecially
that fpecies v/hich is common to, and mutual be-
tween, all bodies ; and is evident between the
fun and its planetary attendants, as alfo the earth
and moon.* But we will only confider it, as it
relates to that tendency which all bodies on this
earth has to fall towards its centre ; thus far it
concerns the mechanical arts, and its lav/s are as
.follows, viz.

Laws of Gravity.

1 . Gravity is common to all bodies, and mutual
between them.

2. It is in proportion to the quantity of matter
jn bodies.

3. It is exerted every way from the centre of
jattradiing bodies, in right-lined directions ; there-
fore all bodies on the earth tend to the centre of
gravity of the earth.t

4. It decreafes as the fquares of the diflance in-
crcafe; that is, if a body, on the earth, was to be
removed to double the diflance from the centre
of gravity of the earth, about 4000 miles high,
it would there have but 1-4 of the gravity or >
weight it had when on the ground : but a fmall
height from the furface of the earth (/^o, 100, or
500 feet) will make no fenhble difference in gra-
vity.J

* It is this attraftion of gravity between the heavenly bodies, that, keeps
up the order of their motion, in their revolutions round each other. See
Fergufon's Leftures, page 23.

t The centre of gravity of a body, is that point on which, if the body
be fufpended, it will remain at reft in any pofition ; or it is the centre of the
whole weight or matter of the body. Art. 14.

\ The diameter «f the earth is allowed to be about 8000 miles; there-
fore we may fuppofe the centre of gravity of the earth to be about 4000
miles from its furface; "and any fmall diltance from its furface, fuch as i
mile high, will make no fenfible difference in gravity. But \Then the dif-
tance is fo great as to bear a confiderable proportion to the diilance of the
centre of gravity of the earth, then the power of gravity will decreafe
fenfibly. Thus, at the diftance of the moon, which, at a mean, is about
bo femi-diameters of the earth, the power of gravity is to that on the fur-
face of the earth, as i to 3600. See Martin\' Philofophy.

MECHANICS. Chap, I,

By the 3d law, it follows, that all bodies de-
fcending freely by their gravity, tend towards the
earth, in right lines, perpendicular to its furface,
and with equal velocities (abating for the refift-
ance of the air) as is evident by the 2d law,*

■«@>o(^<S»" —

Elasticity.

Elaflicity is that flrength or power, which any
body or quantity of matter, being confined or
compreiTed, has to expa^'id itfelf ; fuch as a fpring
that is bent or wound up, heated air or fleam con-
fined in a vefTel, Sec. and by it many mechanical
operations are performed.

Elafticity, in the full fenfe of the word, here
means every fpecies of repulfion.

The limits of the prodigious power of repulfion,
which takes place between the particles of heated
air and fleam, are not yet known. Their eifefts
are feen in the explofion of gunpowder, the burfl-
ing and cracking of wood in the fire, Sec. In
ihort, in every inflance, where fleam could not
find room to expand itfelf, it has burfl the vefTel
that confined it, endangering the lives of thofe
who were near it.f

* This refiftance will be as the furfaces of the bodies ; therefore the
fmaller the body of equal matter, the greater will be the velocity of its
fall. But it has been proved, by experiment, that a feather will fall with
the fame velocity as a guiuea, in vacuo. See Fergufon's Ledlures, page
183.

t A worthy and ingeuius youngman, having prepared a yeffel of wrought
iron, about 3 inches diameter, an J 9 inches long, partly filled with water,
had put it into a finith's fire, and was trying fomc experiments, when the
aperture, by which the fteam was meant to iflue, got flopped by fome
means (as is fuppofed) and the veflel burft with noife like a cannon, carried
off his right arm, and left it laying acrofs one of the upper beams of the
fliop, and otherwife defperately wounded liim. This prodigious power is
applieu to raife water out of coal-mines, gcc. from great depths, in fur-
prijirg quantities, and to turn mills; it may (in my opinion) be applied
to many other ufeful purpoles, which it is not yet applied to.

On tliis .ubjeft much m.ight be faid; but as it does not irmnediately con-
cern this work, pei'haps I have faid enough to excite the reader to perufe
the fevcral late authors on philofophy, who have treated largely and well
on it, and to them I rnuft refer.

Chap. I. MECHANICS.

Having premifed what was neceiFary to the ^^"^^ 3-
right undcrfcanding of the fcience of mechanics,
which nioftly depends upon tlic principles of gra-
vitation,

We come to confider the Objecls tliereof, viz.
the Nature, Kinds, and various Eftedls of Motion
and moving Bodies, and the Struaure and Mc-
chanifm of all Kinds of Machines, called Mecha-
nical Powers, whether Simple or Compound.

— '"'Tf ■' -^^^^^gaHtag3f*»

CHAPTER H.

Of Motion and its General Laws.

Art.

OTION is the continual and fucceflive ^^^-^^^^
change of fpace or place, and is cither ab-
folute or relative.

Abfolute motion is the change of fpace or place ^bfoiute.
of bodies, fuch as the flight of a bird, or the mo-
tion of a ball projcded in the air.

Relative motion is the motion one body has with p^eiative.
refpett to another, iuch as the difference of mo-
tion of the flight of two birds, or of two Ihips
failing.*

*■ If two fhips, A and B, move with the fame velocity, iii the fame di-
reftion, then their abrolute motion is the fjime, and they have no relative
motion, and neither of them will appear, to a peribn on board of the other,
to move at all. Hence it is, that although the earth is continually revolving
about its axis, with a velocity, at the equator, of about 1042 miles in an
hour, and round the fun, in continual abfolute motion, v/ith a velocity of
about 58000 miles an hour — yet, as all oljefts on its furface have the fame
abfolute motion, they appear to be at reft, and not to move at all : therefore
all motion of bodies on the earth, appears to us to be abfolute motion, v/hen
compared with objefts fixed on the earth ; yet, if we take into confideration
the abfolute motion of the earth, all motion on it will appear to be merely re-
lative.

MECHANICS.

Chap, II,

Art. 5-
Motion,

Equable.

Accelerated.

Retarded.

MOTION is either Equable, Accelerated, or
Retarded.

Equable motion is when a body pafles over equal
difiances in equal times.

Accelerated motion, is that which is continually
increafed ; fuch is the motion of falling bodies.*

Retarded motion, is that which continually de-
creafes ; fuch is the motion of a cannon-ball thrown
perpendicularly upwards. T

••*^^oQfi^S»"

Art. 6. THE Momentum or quantity of motion, is all

the ppw^er or force which a moving body has to
ftrike an obftacle to produce effefts, and is equal
to that imprelfed force by which a body is com-
pelled to change its place, by axiom 3, art. i ;

If twd fiiips, A and B, moving with equal velocities, pafs each other,
then they will appear, to a fpedlator on board of either, to move with double
their refpeftive real velocities.

Hence the reafon, why a perfon, riding againft the wind, finds its force
greater, and with it, its force lefs, than it really is.

* A falling body is conftantly afted upon by all the power of its own gra-
vity ; therefore its motion is continually increafed.

t A cannon-ball, projedled perpendicular upwards, is conftantly refille^l
by the whole power of its o^v•n gravity ; therefore its motion will be conti-
nually decreafed, and tctally flopped as foon as the fum of this refiftance
amounts to the firft impulfe, by axiom 3d, art. I, when it will begin to de-
fcend, and its motion will be continually increafed by the fame po^ver of its
own gravity : its motion downwards v.all be equal to its motion upwards, in
every part of its path, and it Avill return to the mouth of the cannon with
the velocity and force that it left it ; ana the time of its afcent and defcent
will be equal, fuppofmg there was no refiftance from the air — but this refift^
ance will make a confiderable difference.

From this principle of accelerated motion in falliEg bodies, may appear
the reafon, why water poured from the fpout of a tea-kettle, will not conr
tinue in a ftream farther than about two feet, and this ftream becomes
fmaller as it approaches the place where it breaks into drops ; becaule the
attraftionofcohefion keeps the water together, until the accelerated mo-
tion of its fall, which ftretches the ftream fmaller andfmaller, overcomes
the cohefion, and then it breaks into drops, and tliefe drops become further
afur.der while they continue to fall : therefore, if the clouds were to empty
themfelves in torrents, the water would fall on the earth in drops. This
may ferve to lliew the diiadvantage of drawing the gate of a water-mill at a
great diltance from the float-board : but more of this hereafter. See
art. 59.

Ghap. II, MECHANICS. 7

which, I think, ouglit to be diftinguifhed by two Art. 6.
lames, viz. Inftant and Effective Momcntums.

1 . The Inftant Momentum, or force of moving ^JgrS^d!
Dodies, is in the compound ratio of their quantities tion.

3f matter and fimple velocities conjointly ; that
is, as the weight of the body A, multiplied into
its velocity, is to the weight of the body B, mul-
tiplied into its velocity, fo is the inftant force of
A to the inftant force of B. If A has 4lbs. of
matter, and i degree of velocity, and B has 2lbs.
of matter, and 4 degrees of velocity ; then the
momentum of their ftrokes will be as 4 is to 8 ;
that is, fuppofing them to be inftantaneoufly flop-
ped by an obftacle.

2 . The EfFeftive Moihentuiii, or force of moving
bodies, is all the efFeft they will produce by im-
piiiging on any yielding obftacle, and is in the
compound duplicate ratio of their quantities (or
weights) multiplied into the fquares of their ve-
locities ; that is, as the weight of the body A,
multiplied into the fquare of its velocity, is to
the weight of the body B, multiplied into the
fquare of its velocity, fo is the efFeftivc momen-
tum of A to that of B. If A has 2lbs of matter
and 2 degrees of velocity, and B 2lbs of matter
and 4 degrees of velocity, then their effe^liv^e mo-
tnentums are as 8 to 32 ; that is, a double velocity
produces a quadruple effeft.

THE general Laws of Motion are the three Art. 7-
following, viz.

Law I. Every body will continue in its prefent ^^'**'^°^'"®"
ftate, whether it be at reft or moving uniformly
in a right line, except it be compelled to change
that ftate by fome force imprefted.*'

* By the firft law, a body at reft, inclines to continue fo for ever, by its
yifmertia or inaftive power, and a body in motion inclines to continue fo
for ever, palFmg over equal diftances in equal times, if it meets with no le-

I
8 MECHANICS. Chap. Ih |

Art. 7- Law 2. The change of motion or velocity is i

Kev/ pofitioii. a}^^ays proportional to the fquare root of the ]
moving force impreifed, and in a right line with
that force, and not as the force direftly.'*

Law 3. Aftion and re-a6tion are always equal,
and in contrary diredtions to each other. t

fiftance, and will move on in aright line-. Foi; v/ant of refiftance the planets
and conets continue their motions undiminiftied, while moving bov/les or
wheels are reduced to a ftate of reft by the refiftance of the air, and the
friclion of the parts on which they move. See Fergufon's Leftures on Me-
chanics.

It is this friftion of the parts, and refiftance of the air, which renders it
impoflible for us to make a perpetual motion ; becaufe this friftion and re-
fiftance are to be overcome, and although it may be reduced to be very
fmall, yet man cannot, with all his art, by mechanical combinations, gain
as much power as will overcome it. Philofophers have demonftrated the
impoffibility of making it ; but I think none ought to affert that it will never
be found ; for there are many perpetual motions in the heavens. If any
man would ipend his time in this "^vay, it fliould be to feek for a created
power that he might apply to this purpofe, and not to create one.

• This is, evident, when we confider that a body muft fall a quadruple
diftance to obtain double velocity, by art. 9 ; and a quadruple head or pref-
fure of fluid produces a double velocity to the fpout, by art. 46. The velo-
city, in both thefe cafes, is as the fquare root of the impulfe, and the im-,
pulfe as thefquaresof the velocity, .therefore the change of effeftive mo-
tion or velocity will always be as the fquare root of the impulfe or force
imprelfed, and the force imprelTedas the fquares of the velocity or effeftive
motion.

f Adlioh and re-a-Aion are equal ; that is, if a hammer ftrikes an anvil,
the anvil will re-aft againft the hammer with an equal force to the aftion of
the hammer.

The ailioh of our feet againft the ground, and the re-aftion of the ground
againft our feet, are equal.

The aftion of the hand to project a ftone, and the re-aftion of the ftone
againft the hand, are equal.

If a cannon, welgliing 64oolbs. gives a 24lb. ball a velocity of 640 feet
par fecnnci, the aftion of the powder on the ball, and its re-adtion againft
the cannon, ai-e equal ; and if the cannon has liberty to move^ it will have
a velocity, which multiplied into its weight, v/illbe equal to the velocity of
the ball multiplied by its weight : their inftant momentums are alway.-; equal-
.See Martin-'s Philofophy.

•<=-i -iPo ^5>^ i^ ^:?^ <:?-> -i>^-;;>> <S^^^<s^ ^i5^-<:5>-> .<^ '-i>2 -<:^ t<^ .

CHAPTER III.

— ■<^>^ —

Of the Momentum or Forge of Bodies in Art. 8.
Motion.

IF two non-elauiic bodies, A and B, iig. i, each pig. i.
having the fame e][uantity of matter, move with
equal velocities againil each other, they Vvall de-
ftroy each other's motion, and remain at reft after ^.. „
the flrpke : becaufe their momentums will be ous momen-"
equal: that is, if each has 2lb3 of matter and lo ^^^ff^^odies

1 r i •. 1 • ■ '1. ^ " in motion.

degrees or celerity, their initantaneous momen-
tums will each be 20.

But if the bodies be perfcftly elaflic, they will
recede from each other with the lame velocity
with which they meet ; becaufe action and re-
action are equal, by the 3d general law of motion,
art. 7.* '

If two non-elaflic bodies, A and B, fig, 2,
moving in the fame diredion with different veloci-
ties, impinge on each other, they will (after the
ftroke) move on. together v/ith fuch velocity, as,
being multiplied into the fum of their weights,
will produce the fum of their inflant momentums
which they iKid before the ftroke 5 that is, if each
weigh lib. and A has 8 and B 4 degrees of cele-
rity, the fum of their inflant momentums will be
12, then, after the ftroke, their velocity will be
6 ; which, multiplied into their quantity of mat-

** Tlus fliews that non-elaftic bodies communicate only half their original
force ; becaufe the force required to caufe the bodies to recede from each
other, is equal to tiie force that gave them velocity to meet ; and the force
that caufe.d the body to recede with velocity lo, is equal to the force tfeat
flopped velocity i o.

Fig. 2.

M E C H A N I C S. Chap, III.

ter 2, produces 12, the flmi of their inflant mor
mentums. But if they had been elaftic, then A
would have moved with 4 and B with 8 degi-ees
of velocity after the flroke, and the funi of their
inftant momentums would be 12, as before.*

3. If a non-elailic body A, with quantity of
matter 1, and 10 degrees of velocity, flrike B
at refl-, of quantity of matter i, they will both
move on together vv^ith velocity 5; but if they
be elaflic, B flies off with velocity 10, and A re-
mains at refl, by 3d general lav/ of motion, art. y:\
It is univcrfally true, that v*4iatcver inflant mo-
mentum is communicated to a body, is loft by the]
body that communicates it.

4. If the body A, fig. 4, receive two ftrokes'
or impulfes at the fame time, in different direc-
tions, the one fufiicient to propel it from A to B, '
and the other to propel it from A to D, in equal
time, then this compound force v/ill propel it in
tiie diagonal line A G, and it will arrive at C in
the fame time that it would have arrived at B or
D, hj one impulfe only ; and the projeftile force i
of thefe ftrokes are as the fquares of the fides of the
parallelogram, bylaw 2, ait. 7.I

* Becaufe elaftic bodies impinging, recede, after the flroke, with the
fam' velocity with v/hich they meet : therelbre, a heavy body in motion,
Impinging on a lighter body at reft, will give it a greater velocity than that
v/ith which it v.-as ftruck ; for if the heavy body be not ilopped, butmove
forward after the ftroke, v/ith a certain velocity, that velocity, added to
the velocity before the ftroke, will be the velocity of the lighter body.

t This alfo ihews evidently, that non-elaflic bodies commmiicate only
half their force. A knowledge of this is of great ufe in eftabiifhing a true
theory of water-mills.

+ This do'ilrine of the momentum of bodies in mction, and communi-
cation of motion, being as their velocities fmiply, was taught by Sir Ifaac
Newton, and has been received by his followers to this day; which appear:
to be true, v/here the whole force is inltantaneoufly fpent or communicated :
therefore I have changed the term to inftant momentum. I have tried the
experiment, by caufing diiterent weights to flrike each other with different
velocities, both on the principle of pendulums, and by caufing them to
move in horizontal circles; and, in both cafes, 4lbs. with velocity i, ba-
lanced 2lbs. v.'ith velocity 2 ; their momentums each were 4 : fo that the
tl-.eory appears to be proved to be true. Yet I think we have reafon to
doubt its beirg true in any other feme ; becaufe it does not agree with prac-
tice. All the bodies we put in motion, to produce effefts, produce them
-.i! proportion to the fc]uarc; of their velocities, or nearly, as will appear in

Chap, III, MECHANICS. 1 1

5, If a perfect elaftic body be let fall 4 feet, to Art. 8.
ftrike a per fed: elailic plain, by the laws of falling Adoublevdo-
bodies, art. o, it will ftrike the plain with a vc- ^^ty produces
lociry of 16,2 feet per fecond, and rife, by its re- cff^a. '
aftioD, to the fame heigiit from whence it fell, in
lialf a fecond: If it falls 16 feet, it v/ili ftrike
with a velocity of 32,4 feet, and rife 16 feet in
one fecond. Now, if we call the rifmg of the
body the effe6l, we fhall nnd that a double velo-
city, in tliis cafe, produces a quadruple efFetl in
double time. Hence it appears, that a body
moving through a refifting medium, with a dou-
ble velocity, will continue in motion a double
time, and go 4 times the diftance ; which will be
a quadruple cited:,*

the courfe of this work : But I fear I fhall draw on me the ridicule of fome,
if 1 fhould doubt a theory long eftablifhed ; but I think we ihould follow
Others only in the paths of truth. Doubtiels Sir Ifaac meant the force to be
inftantly fpent : and I have underftood that the Dutch and Italian philofo-
phers have held and taught, thele lOO years paft, that the mcnientum of bo-
dies in motion, is as the iquares of their velocities ; and I muft confefs it
appears to be really the cafe, with refpeit to the etfedlc they produce ; which
lis generally as their quantity or Vt'eight multiplied into the fquares of their
velocities. I found it impofiibie to reconcile the theory of the force ofbodies in
motion, being as their limple velocities, to the laws of circular motion, art.
13, where a double velocity produces a quadruple central ibrcc \ of falling
bodies, art. 9, where the velocity is as the fquare root of the impulie or dif-
tance fallen, and the eliefts as the fquares of the velocities; of projectiles,
where a double velocity produces a quadruple random, art. i2; ofbodies
defcending on inclined plains, art. 10, where the velocities are as the fquare
roots of the perpendicular delcents, and the effects as the fquares of their
velocities ; of fpouting fluids, art- 45? where their velocities are as the
i Iquare roots of their perpendicular heights or ptsiiures, and •. heir effedls as
I the fquares of their velocities, with equal quantities; of v/iiid on mill-
falls, art. 69, where the effefts are as the cube oi the velocity of the wind ;
becaufe here the quantity is as the velocity, and the etTe<t of equal quantities
being as the fquares of the velocity, amounts the eiie>ts to be as the cubes.

But when I difccvered that a quadruple inipizlfe was i-eqni(ite to give
double velocity, both in falling bodies and fpouting fluids, and, by axiom
3, the power that produced amotion in a body, and the power tliat deitroyed
faid motion, were equal, I concluded that the euei3:s produced by bodies in
motion, were as the fquares of their velocities ; and then I found the whole
theory to agree M-ith practice. Hereafter I Ihall iay, that the efTective mo-
mentum, or force of bodies in niOtion, is as the fquares of their velo-
cities.

* We fhould pay no regard to time, in calculating the efTevlive force of
ibodies in motion. Becaufe, if lib cf matter move with i degree of velo-
city, it will pi-oducc a certain effect (beiore it ceafes moving) in an Unknown
time. Every other pound of matter, mo\ ing v.ith equal velocity, will
produce an equal eiTe<5l in equal time. But if each pofi'nd rf rliatter mo\'e
v.'ivh d«uble velQcity, it will produce 4 times Che eitjt, bnt requires a dou-

12 M E C H A N I C S. Chap. II L

Gf Non-elasticity in impinging Bodies.

1 . IF A and B, fi^. 3, be two columns of matter
in motion, meeting each other, and equal in non-
eiaPticity, quantity, and velocity, they will meet
at the dotted line e e, deftroy each other's motion,
and remain at reft, provided aone of their parts
feparate.

2. But if A is elaftic, and B non-elaftic, they
will meet at ee, butB will give way by battering
up, and both will move a little further 5 that is,
half the diftance that B fliortens.

3. But if B is a column of fluid, and, v/hen -it
ftrikes A, flies off in a lateral perpendicular direc-
tion, then whatever is the fum total of the mo-
mentums of thefe particles laterally, has not been
communicated to A ; therefore A will continue to
move, a:fter the llroke, with that faid momen-
tum.

4. But v/ith what proportion of the ftriking ve-
locity the fluid, after the ftroke, will move in the
lateral direftion, I do not find determined ; but,
fromfmall experiments I have made (not fully to-
be relied on) I fuppofe it to be more than one
half ; becaufe water falling 4 feet, and ftriking a
horizontal plain, v/ith 16,2 feet velocity, v/ill
cafl fome few drops to the diftance of ^ feet (fa 3;
10 feet, allowing one foot to be loft by fi'iftion,
<^c.) which we mufl fuppole'take their dire£tion
£it an angle of 45 degrees; becaufe it is fliewn, in
Martin's philofophy, page 135, Vol. I, that a
body projedled at an angle of 45 degrees, will de-
fcribe the greateft poilible horizontal randr.m;
alfo, that a body falling 4 feet, and refieded with
its acquired velocity 16,2 feet, at 45 degrees,

ble time ; wliich difference in time no way afiefts t-s fum total of the ef-
fefts oi" the matter put in motion to move any pracftical machine. There-
fore we fhould totally leave time out ci this calculation, Teeing it tends tu
lead us into errors.

Chap. in. ivr E C H A N I C S. t%

will reach i6 t(^ct horizontal randimi, or 4 times Art 8.
the diflance of the fall. Therefore, by this, 1-4
of 10 feet, equal to 2,5 feet, is the fall that will
produce the velocity that pi'odiiced it, viz. Velo-
city T 2564 feet per fecond, about 3-4 of the ftrik-
iiig velocity.

5. And if the force of flriking fluid;* be as the 6-iothsof
fquares of their velocities, as proved in art. 67 power loft by

T • iin^ii ^ / non-elafticity.

by experiment, and demonltratea by art. 46 ;
then the ratio of the force of this lide velocity,
12,64 feet per fecond, is to the force of forward
velocity, as 160 to 256, more than half (about
,6) of the whole force is here loil by non-elafti-
city.

6. This fide force cannot be applied to produce
any further forward force., after it has flruck the
iirft obftacle ; becaufe its action and re-adtion ba-
lance each other afterwards : which I demonftrate
by fig. 27.

Let A' be an obftacle, againft which the column
of water G A, of quantity t6 and velocity per
fecond 16, ftrikes ; as it ftrikes A, fuppofe it to
change its direction, at right angles, with 3-4 ve-
locity, and ftrike B B ; then change again, and
ftrike forward againft CC, and backwards againft
D D ; then again in the fide diredlion E E ; and
again in the forward and backward diredlions
all of which counteract each other, and balance
exaftly.

Therefore, if we fuppofe the obftacle A to be
the float of an underffiot water-^vheel, the water
can be of no further fervice, in propelling it, after
the flrft impulfe, but rather a diiadvantage ; be-
caufe the elafticity of the float will caufe it to re-
bound in a certain degree, and not keep iwWy up
with the float it ftruck, but re-aft back againft the
float following ; therefore it will be better to let
it efcape freely as foon as it has fiiliy made the
ftrdke, but not fooner, as it v/ill require a certain

14 MECHANICS. Chap, III,

Art. 8. fpace to ad: in, which will be in dire£l proportion

to the diflance between the floats.
Greateft effeft 7. From thefe confiderations, we may conclude,
^uid?^ot° that the greateft efFed to be obtained from ftriking
more than fluids, will not amount to more than half the
m^^gpower P^wer that gives them motion ; but much lefs, if
they be not applied to the befh advantage : And
that the force of non-elaftic bodies, ftriking to pro-
duce effeds, will be in proportion to their non-
elafticity.

Art. 9,

CHAPTER IV.

— ■<-^> —

Of fallikg Bodies.

BODIES defcending freely by their gravity,-
in vacuo, or in an unreiifting medium, ard
lubject to the following laws:

I ft. They are equably accelerated.*
2d. Their velocity is always in proportion to
the time of their fall, and the time is as the fquare
root of the diftance fallen. t

3d, The fpaces through which they pafs, arc
as the fquare of the times or velocities.^ There-
fore,

*Itisevident,that iii every equel part of tiine,the body receives an impiilfc
from gravity, that will propel it an equal diftance, and give it an equal
additional velocity ; therefore it will produce equal effects in equal times,
and their velocity will be proportional to the time.

t If the velocity, at the end of one ifecond, be 32,4 feet, at the end of
two feconds it will be 64,8, at the end of tlu'ee feconds 97,2 feet per fecond,
and fo on.

t That is, as the fquare of r fecond is to the fpace palTed through 16,2,
fo is the fquare of 2 feconds, which is 4, to 64,8 feet, palfed through at the
end of 2 feconds, and fo on, for any number of feconds. Therefore the
l]5aces palTed through at the end of every fecond, will be as the fquare nuni-

Chap, IV, MECHANICS.

4th. Their velocities are as the fquare root of ^'^*- %
the ipace defcended through ;* and their force,
to produce effeds, as their diftances fallen direft-

5th. The fpace pafTed through the firft fecond,
is very nearly 16,2 feet, and the velocity ac-
quired, at the lov/eft point, is 32,4 feet per fe-
cond.

6th. A body will pafs through twice the fpace,
in a horizontal direftion, with the laft acquired
velocity of the defcending body, in the fame time
of its fall.t

7th. The total fum of the efFeftive impulfe act-
ing on them to give them velocity, is in diredc
proportion to the fpace defcended throngh,4 and
their velocity being as the fquare root of the fpace
defcended through ; or, which is the fame, as
the fquare root of the total impulfe. There-
fore,

8th. Their momentums, or force to produce
effects, are as the fquares of their velocities, || or
directly as their diftances fell through ; and the
times expended in producing the effects, are as
jtlie iquare root of the diftance fallen through.^

bfrs r, 4, 9, 16, 2j, 36, %ic. and the fpaces pafled through, in each fecond
feparatoly, will be as the odd numbers 1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15, &c.

* That is, as the fquare root of 4, which is 2, is to 16, 2, the velocity ac-
quired in falling 4 feet : fo is the fquare root of any other diftance, to the
velocity acquired, in falling that diitance.

t That is, fuppofe the body as it arrives at the loweft point of its fall,
and has acquired its greatcft velocity, was to be turned in a horizontal di-
reftion, and the velocity to continue uniform, it would pafs over double
the diftance, in that direftion that it had defcended through in the fame time.

\ This is evident from the confideration, that in every equal part of dif-
tance it defcends through, it receives an equal eiFe^live impulfe from gra-
vity. Therefore 4 times the diftance, gives 4 times the efteiTtive (but not
inftant) impulfe.

II This is evident, when we confider, that a quadruple diftance or impulle,
produces only double velocity, and by axiom 3 a quadruple refiftance will
be required, to ftop double velocity; confequently their force is as the
fquares of their velocities, which brings them to be direftly as their dif-
tances defcended through : and this agrees with the fecond law of fpouting
fluids. Art. 45.

§ That is, if a body fall 1 6 feet, and ftrike a non-elaftic body, fuch as
h#t iron, Ibft lead, clay, &c. it will ftrike with velocity 32, and produce -i

i6 M P: C H A N I C S. C/iap. IF.

•*'■'* 9- pth. The refinance they meet with in any

given time, in paifing through a refilling medium,
is as their furfaces, ar^d as the cubes of their ve-
locities.*

certain efFeft in a certain time. Again if it fall 64 feet, it will ftrike with
velocity 64, and produce a quadruple effeiR:, in a double time ; becaufe, if
aperfeftly elaftic body fall 16 feet in one fecond of time, and llrike a per-
fectly elaftic plain, with velocity 32 feet, it will rife 16 feet in one fecond
of time. Again, if the body fall two feconds of time, it will fall 64 feet,
and ftrike with velocity 64, and rife 64 feet in two feconds of time.
Now, if we call the rifing of the body the effect of the ftriking velocity
(which it really is) then all will appear clearly. But any thing here advanc-
ed, if contrary to the opinion of many learned and ingenious author.', ought
to be doubted, unlefs known to agree with practice,
* This is evident when we confider,

1. That it is a proportion of the furfaces, that meets the refiftance ;
*nd,

2. That a double velocity ftrike s a double quantity of refifting particles
in the fame time.

3. That a double velocity ftrikes each particle with double the inftant,
and four times the effeiftive force, by art. 6.

Therefore, the inftant refiftance is as the fquares of their velocities,
and willfoon amount to the whole force of gravity, and reduce tne motion
to be imiform. This is the reafon why hail and rain fells with fuch mode-
rate force ; whereas if it was non for the refiftance of the air, they would
prove fatal to thofe they fall upon. Compare this with the efFeft of wind
on mill-fails, proved by experiment, to be as the cubes of the velocity,
Art. 69, and with the efferts of fpouting fluids, proved to be as the cubes
of their velocities, with equal apertures. Art. 67, and 7th law of fpout-
ing fluids.

Again, conflder that the folid content 'of bodies decreafes, as the cubes
of their diameters, while their furfaces decreafe only as the fquares of
their diameters ; Consequently the fmaller the body, the greater the refift-
ance, in proportion to its weight : and this is the reafon why heavy bodies,
rediiced to duft, will float in the air ; as, likewiic, feathers, and many other
bodies of great furface and little matter. This feems to Ihow, that air
. is, perhaps, as heavy as any other matter whatever, of an equal degree of
finenefj or fmallnefs of paiticles.

Thefe are the laws of falling bodies fuppofing them to fall in vacuo, or
in an unreflfting me Jium ; and without confidering that gravity increales,
as the fquare of the diftance from the center of gravity of the attracling
power decreafes (4. law of gravity, art. 2 ;) becaufe any fmall diftance,
fuch as comes in our pratliice, will make no fenfibJe dilference. But as
they fall in the air, -which is a medium of great refiftance, the inftant refifraHce
is as the oppofmg furfaces of the falling body, and as the fquares of their ve-
locities, their motion will greatly difler from thefe laws, in falling great
diftances, or with light bodies ; but in fmall diftances, fuch as 30 feet or
lefs, and heavy bodies, the dilference will be iniperceptable in common
prafiice.

A TABLE OP THE MOTION OF
FALLING BODIES,

SUPPOSED IN. VACUO.

Diftai
in fa
and

nee pafled
feet.

1^1 yp-

►a. 0- V^ B e ro

S 3 5

• -a rt

3 rr

' D- '° 0 i

rj^ 1

'-' "-n r;

0 1^

-h l^f'

"• fB 0

■"1 1

ST ni ti-

;ri ^

n> -J

^.3 3

9. !

ro n> "1

S-S

n 0

3 C- Cl.

8.1

.125

.25

11.4
14.

-25

l.oi

4-^5

8.1
16.2

16.2

•75

9. II

24-3

18.

16.2

32.4

19.84

64.8

21.43

145.8

97.2
129.6

22.8

259.2

^4-3

305-

162.

25-54

583.2

194.4

26.73

793.8

226.8

28.

1036.8

259-2

29.16

1312.2

291 .6

30.2

1620.

324-

3^-34

14580.

972.

32.4

58320.

1944.

33-32

34-34

35-18

36.2

37-11

48.6

56.7

64.8

100

81.

iiH4

97.2

L- D

if»w ..i ■ .1 ^■.■i—i~-^

=S=i~^- -^

===■ '-'■ — ^

A SCALE OF THE MOTION of FALLING BODIES.^

16.2 feet is the fpace fallen through
the I ft fecond, by law 5, which let
be equal .to - - - -
Which is alfo the whole fpace fallen
through at the end of the ift fecond,
which let be equal to -
^32.4 feet per fecond is the velocity ac-
lo quired by the fall, ditto - - -
. . a

48.6 feet is the fpace fallen through the
ov 2d fecond, ditto

i^ 64.8 feet do. at the end of 2 feconds, do.
^4.8 feet is the velocity per fecond, ac-
quired at the end of the 2d fecond, do.

81. feet is the fpace fallen through the

3d fecond of time, ditto
1 45.8 feet ditto in 3 feconds of time, do.

97.2 feet is the velocity acquired by
the fall at the end of 3 feconds, ditto

1 13.4 feet is the fpace fallen through

in the 4th fecond of time, ditto -
259.2 feet ditto in 4 feconds, ditto -

129.6 feet per fecond, is the velocity
acquired at the end of 4 feconds, do.

3a"

rf rt it

^•5

n ^

Chap, IV' MECHANICS. 19

This fcalc fiiews, at one view, all the laws to A'^t, 8.
be performed by the falling body o, which falls
from o to J, 16,2 feet, the firft fecond, and ac-
quires a velocity that would carry it 32,4 feet,
from I to a, the next fecond, by laws 5 and 6 ;
this velocity would alfo carry it down to b in the
fame time, but its gravity, producing equal effcd:s
in equal times, will accelerate it fo much as to
take it to 3 in the fame time, by law i. It will
BOW have a velocity of 64,8 feet per fecond, that
will take it to c horizontally, or dov/n to d, but
gravity will help it on to 5 in the fame time. Its
velocity will now be 97,2 feet^ whicll will take
it horizontally to c, or down to f, but gravity
will help it on to 7 ; and its laft acquired veloci-
ty will be 129,6 feet per fecond from 7 to g.

If either of thefe horizontal velocities be con-
tinued, the body will pafs over double the diflancc
it fell, in the fame time, by law 6.

Again, if o be perfeftly elaftic, and, falling,
llrikes a perfect elallic plain, either at 1,3, 5 or 7,
the effective force of its ftroke will catiie it to
rife again to o in the fame fpace of time it took
to fall.

Which fhews, that in every equal part of dif-
tance, it received an equal cfFeftive impulfe from
gravity, and that the total fum of their efFeftivc
impulfe is as the diffcance fallen diredlly — and the
effedlive force of their ftrokcs will be as the fquares
of their velocities, by laws 7 and 8.

CHAPTER V.
— <<^>> —

Art. 10. Of Bodies descending, inclined Plains and

CURVED Surfaces.

ODIES defcending inclined plains and curved
_ fiirfaces, are fubjeft to the following laws :

1. They are equably accelerated, becaufe their
motion is the efFeft. of gravity.

2. The force of gravity propelling the body A,
Fig. J. fig. 5, to defcend an inclined plain A D, is to the

abfoiute gravity of the body, as the height of the
plain A C is to its length A D.

3. The fpaces defcended thro' are as the fquares
of the times.

4. The times, in which the different plains AD,
AH, and A I, or the altitude AC, are palfed over,
are as their lengths refpeftively.

5. The velocities acquired in defcending fuch
plains, in the loweft points D, H, I or C, are all
equal.

6. The times and velocities of bodies defcend-
ing through plains alike inclined to the horizon,
are as the fquare roots^ of their lengths.

7. Their velocities, in all cafes, are as the fquare
roots of their perpendicular defcent.

From thefe laws or properties of bodies defcend-
ing inclined plains, are deduced the following co-
rollaries, viz.

I. That the time, in which a body defcends
through the diameter AC, or any cord A a, A e,
or A i, are equal. Hence,

Chap. VI, MECHANICS. Ci

2. All the cords of a circle are dcfcribed in equal Art. lo.
times.

3. The velocity acquired in defcending thro'
any arch, or cord of an arch, of a circle, as a C,
in the lowell point C, is equal to the velocity
that v/ould be acquired in falling through the per-
pendicular height FC.

The motion of pendulums have the fame pro-
perties, the rod or firing ading as the fmooth
curved furface.

For demonfiration of thefe properties, fee Mar-
tin's Philofophy, vol. I, page iii — 117.

■— »iT|f H'l'jJPjl'-

CHAPTER. VI.

Of the Motion of Projectiles. Art. 12.

APPcOjECTILE is a body thrown or pro-
jected in any direftion ; fuch as a ilone from
the hand, water Ipouting from any vcilel, a ball
from a cannon, Sec. hg. 6. Fig. 6.

Every projectile is acled on by two forces at
the lame time, viz. the Impulfe and the Gra-
vity.

By the impulfe, or projectile force, the body ofprojeftiies.
■will pafs over equal diilances, A B, B C, Sec. in
equal times, by ill general law of motion, art. 7,
and, by gravity, it defcends through the fpaces
A G, G H, Sec. which are as the fquares of the
times, by 3d law of falling bodies, art. 9. There-
fore, by thefe forces compounded, the body will
dcicribe th^ curve A O^, called a parabola ; and

22 MECHANICS, Chap. VIl,

Art. i^ this will be the cafe in all dircftions, except per- ]
pendicular ; but the curve will vary with the]
elevation, yet it will ftill be what is called a pa^ |
rabola. i

If the body is projedted at an angle of 45 de-
grees elevation, it will be thrown to the greateft
horizontal diftance poffible; and, if projected with
double velocity, it will defcribe a quadruple ran-,
doia, '■'■m

For a full account and demonflration, fee Mar-
tin's Phil. vol. I, p. 128 — 135.

CHAPTER VII.

Art. 13, Of Circular Motion Sc Central Forces.

Fig, 7. T ^ ^ body A, fig, 7, be fufpcnded by a firing

Central for- I A C, and caufcd to move round the centre C,
that tendency which it has to fly off froni the
centre, is- called the centrifugal force ; and the
adlion of the firing upon the body, which con-
flantly folicits it towards the centre, and keeps
it in the circle A M, is called the centripital
force. Speaking of thefe tv/o forces indefinitely,
they are called central forces.*

The particular laws of this fpecies of motion,
are,

* It may be well to obferve here, that this central force is no real powfef,
but only an cffeft of the power that gives the bodythe motion. Its inertia
caufes it to recede framthe centre, and fly ofFin a direft tangent line, with
the circle it moves in. Therefore this central force can neither add to,nor
diminilh from the power of any mechanical or hydratilic engine, unlefs it
be by frldtioa.

Chap, VIL MECHANICS. 23

1. Equal bodies defcribing equal circles in equal Art. 13..
times, have equal central forces. ^ ^ trarforce"""

2. Unequal bodies defcribing equal circles in
unequal times, their central forces are as their
tjuantities of matter multiplied into their velo-
cities.

3. Equal bodies defcribing unequal circles in
qual times, their velocities and central forces

ire as their diftances from their centres of motion,
f)r as the radius of their circles.*

4. Unequal bodies defcribing unequal circles in
squal times, their central forces are as their quan-
Liries of matter multiplied into their diftance from
che centre or radius of their circles.

5. Equal bodies defcribing equal circles in un-
equal times, their central forces are as the fquares
>f their velocities ; or, in other words, a double
/■elocity generates a quadruple central force.t
trherefore,

* This ihews, that when mill-ftones are of unequal diameters, and re- La^vs of cen-
plve in. equal times, the largeft Jhould have the draught of their furrows ^j.^j forces to
:fs, in praportion as their central force is more, which is inverfe propor- j^g confidered
iqn; alfo that the draught of a ftone Ihould vary, and be in inverfe pro- j^^ drauchtin'-
ortipn to the diftance from the centre- That is, the greater the diilance jaiH-ftones-
he lefs the draught.

Hence we conclude, that if ftones revolve in equal times, their draught ^

laft be equal next the centre : that is, fo much of the large ftones, as is
qual to the fize of the fmall ones, muft be of equal draught. But that
artwhleh is greater, muft have lei's draught in inverfe proportion, as the
iftanpe. from the centre is greater, the furrows muft crofs at fo much lefs
jngle ; which will be nearly the cafe (if their furrows lead to an equal dif-
ince from their centres) at any confiderable diftance trom the centre of
lie ftone ; but near the centre the angles become greater than the propor-
on, if the furrows be ftraight, a-s appears by the lines g i,h i,g 2, h 2,g 3,
3,in fig. r, pi. XI. the angles near the centre are too great,which ieems to
idicate, that the furrows of mill-ftones ihould not be ftraight, but a little
urved ; but what this curve fhould be is very difficult to determine exaol-
' by theory. By theory it fliould be fuch as to caufe the angle of fiurowf;
rolling, to change in inverfe proportion with the diftance from the centre,

hichwill require, the furrows to curve more,, as they approach the cen-

:e.

t This ftiows that mill-ftones of equal diameters, having their veloci-
es unequal, Ihould have the draught of their furrows, as the fquare roots
f their number of revolutions per minute. Thus, fuppofe the revolu-
ons ol'one ftone to be 8i per minute, and the mean draught of the fur-
)ws 5 inches, and found to be right; the revolutions of the otlierto be
>o; theri to find the draught, fay, As the fquare root of 81, v/hich is 9, is
> the 5 inches (Jr.iught : fo is the fquave raot of loa, v» hich is i'-, tc 4,5

MECHANICS. Chap. Vlt,

6. Unequal bodies defcribing equal circles in
unequal times, their central forces are as their
quantities multiplied into the fquares of their
Velocities.

y. Equal bodies defcribing unequal circles with
equal celerities, their central forces are inverfely
as their diftances from the centre of motion or
radius of the circles.*

8. Equal bodies defcribing unequal circles,
having their central forces equal, their periodical '
times are as the fquare roots of their diftances.

9. Therefore the fquares of the periodical times I
are proportional to the cubes of their diftances,
when neither the periodical times nor the celeri-
ties are given. In that cafe,

inches, the draught required (by inverle proportion) becaufe the draught
muft decreafe as the central force increafes.

* That is the greaterthe diftancs the lefs the central force. This fho-.vs
that mill-ftones of diS^rent diameters, having their peripheries revolving .'
■with equal velocities, fliould have the angle of draught, with which their
furrows crofs each other, in inverfe proportion to tlieir diameters, becaufe
their central forces are as their diameters, by inverfe proportion, direftly ;
and the angle of draught fiiould increafe, as the central force decreafes ,- '.
and decreafe, as it increafes.

But here we muft confider, that, to give ftones of different diameters
equal draughts, the diflance of their furrows from the centre, muft be in
direft proportion to their diameters. Thus, as 4 feet diameter, is to 4
inches draught : fo is five feet diameter to 5 inches draught. To make
the furrows of each pair of ftones crofs each otlier at equal angles, in all
proportional diftances from the centre, fee fig. i, plate XI. vi'here gb,
gd, gf, ha, he, and he, Ihow the direftion of the furrows of the 4, 5 and
6 feet ftones, with their proportional draughts; now it is obvious that
they crofs each other at equal angles, becaufe the refpeftive lines are pa-
rallel, and crofs in each ftdne, near the middle of the radius, which fhows
that in all pioportional diftances, they crofs at equal angles, confequent-
ly their draughts are equal.

But the draught muft be further increafed, with the diameter of the
ftone, in order to increafe the angle of draught in the inverfe ratio, as the
central force decreafes.

To do which fay : If the 4 feet ftone has central force equal i, what cen-
tral force will the 5 feet ftone have ? Anfwer : ,8 by the 7th law.

Then fay) If central foi'ce i requires 5 inches draught, for a 5 feet-
ftone, what will central force ,8 require I Anfwer : 6,25 iuches draught.
This is, fuppofing the verge of each ftone, to move with equal velocity.
This rule may bring out the draught nearly true, provided there bs not
much difference between the diameter of the ftones. Eut it appears to
me, that neither the angles with which the furrows crofs, nor the dii-
tance orthe point from the centre, to which they direft, is a true meafur*
«f th? draught.

<Dhap, FIIL ME t li A N I C S. 25

' 10. The central forces arc as the fquares of the Art. 13.
diftances inverfely.*

CHAPTER VIII.

<<^>'—

Of the Centres of I^jIagnitude, Motion, and Art. i4«
Gravity.

HE centre^pf magnitude is that point which
is equally diilant frorh all the external parts
of a body.

* Thefe are the laws of circular motion and central forces. For expe-
rimental demonftrations of them, fee Fergufon's Le(S:ures on Mechanics,

page 27 to 47-

I may hfere obferve that the whole planetary fyftem is governed by thefe
laws of circular motion and central forces. Gravity afting as the ftring,
and is the centripetal force ; and as the power of gravity decreafes, as the
fquare of the diftance increafes, by the 4th law of gravity, art 2 ; and as
the centripetal and centrifugal forces muft always be equal, in order to
keep the body in a circle. Hence apears the reafon why the planets moll
remote from the fun have their motion fo flow , while thofe near him have
their motions fwift; becaufe their celerities muft be fuch as to create a
centrifugal force equal to the attraction of gravity.

T may here obferve, that modern philofophers begin to doubt the exi-
ftence of inertia, as defined by Newton, to be different and independent
from gravity, but feem to conclude that they are both one thhig ; but when
we confider that the whole force of gravity is exerted as centripetal force,
to keep the heaveiily bodies in a circle. It cannot be tliat fame power,caufe
or principle, that caufeS the bodies to continue their motion, unlefs one
caufe can produce two effects each equal to itlblfjcontrary to axiom 4- Again
we may confider, that gravity decreafes, as the fquares of the diftance of
the body from the attraftirig power increafes, but inertia is the fame every
where ; and if we fuppofe the body to be removed out of the fphere of at-
traction of gravity, there will be no gravity at all, yet inertia v/illaCt in its Attempt to
full power, to continue the motion or reft of a body, by axiom i and 2. pj-gy^ j-jjg g
Hence in this light gravity and inertia appear to be two very diifercLt jfj-gn^e of i
principles and ought to be diltlnguiihed by different names: but here we ej-^ja.
may difpute about words, for in other lights they appear to bs the very
fame tiling.

ex-

MECHANICS. Chap, VIII.

2. The centre of motion is that point which
remains at reft, while all other parts of the body
move round it.

3. The centre of gravity of bodies, is of great

confeqiience to be well underftood, it being the

'principle of much mechanical motion, and pof-

feffes the following particular properties :

1 . If a body is fufpended on this point, as its
centre of motion, it will remain at reft in any po-
fition.

2. If a body is fufpended on any other point
than its centre of gravity, it can reft only in fuch,
pofition, that a right line drawn from the centre
of the earth, through the centre of gravity, will
interfeft the point of fufpenfion.

3. When this point is fupported, the whole bo-
dy is kept from falling, r

4. When this point is at liberty to defcend, the
whole body will fall.

5. The centre of gravity of all homogeneal
bodies, as fquares, circles, fpheres. Sec. is the
middle point in a line conneding any two oppofite
points or angles.

6. In a triangle, it is in a right line drawn
from any angle to bifeft the oppofite fide, at the
diftance of one third of its length from the fide
bifedied.

7. In a hollow cone, it is in a right line pafTing
from the apex to the centre of the bafe, and at
the diftance of one third of the fide from the
bafe.

8. In a folid cone, it is one fourth the fide
from the bafe, in a line drawn from the apex to
thc^ centre of the bafe.

Hence the folotion of many curious phsenomena,
as, why many bodies ftand more firmly on their
bafes than others ; and all bodies will fall, when
their centre of gravity falls v/ithout their bafe.

Chap, IX. MECHANICS. 27

Hence appears thereafon, why wheel-carriages, Art 14.
loaded with Hones, iron, or any heavy matter, !!^Sv'^' ,

• 11 r- r 1 lit., Reafonswhy

Will not overturn lo eaiy, as when loaded with wheeicam-
wood, hay, or any light matter; for when the ^s^sover-
load is not higher than a b, the centre of gravity
will fall within the centre of the bafe at c ; but if
the load is as high as d, it will then fell outfide
the bale of the wheels at e, confequently it will
overturn. From this appears the error of thofe,
who halHIy rile in a coach or boat, when likely
to overfet, thereby throwing the centre of gravi-
ty more out of the bafe, and increafing the dan-
ger.

C H A P T E R IX.

Of THE Mechanical Powers. Art. 15.

A V I N G now premifed and confidered all
that is neceffary for the better underftand-
ing thofe machines called Mechanical PiDwers,
we come to treat of them, and they are fix in
number, viz.

The Lever, the Pulley, the Wheel and Axle,
the Inclined Plain, the Wedge, and the Scre>»''-

They are called Mechanical Powers, bccaufe
they increafe our poM^cr of railing or moving hea- But one prin-
vy bodies ; and, although they are fix in number, chanicai"^^ow-
they feem to be reducible to one, viz. the Lever, ers.
and appear to be governed by one fimple principle,
v/hich I Hiall call the Firft General Law of Me- Gf"^^^? ^^^^^ ,

ot mechanical

chanical Powers ; which is this, viz. the Momen- powers.

28 MECHANICS, Ghap, IX,

Art. 15. turns of the power and weight are always equal,
when the engine is in equilibrio.

Momentum, here means the produft of the
weight of the body multiplied into the diftance id
moves ; that is, the power multiplied into its diffl
tance moved, or into its diftance from the centrfl
of motion, or into its velocity, is equal to thf|
weight multiplied into its diftance moved, or int^f
its diftance from the centre of motion, or into its|^>
velocity ; or, the power multiplied into its perr;
pendicular defcent, is equal to the weight muitit
plied into its perpendicular afcent.

The Second General Law of Mechanical Pov^-j
ers, is, ' ■

The power of the engine, and velocity of the^
weight moved, are always in the inverfe propor-
tion to each other ; that is, the greater the velo-
city of the weight moved, the lefs it muft be ; and
the lefs the velocity, the greater the weight
may be ; and that univerfally in all cafes. There-
fore, .

The Third General Law is,

Part of the original power is always loft in over-
coming fridion, inertia. Sec. but no power can
be gained by engines, when time is confidered in
the calculation.

-<^tO<^>i..

I N the tiieory of this fcience, Vv^e fuppofe all
plains to be perfeftly fmooth and even, levers to
have no weight, cords to be perfedly pliable, and
machines to have no friftion ; in fnort, aliimper-
feaions are to be laid afide, until the theory is
cftabliflied, and then proper allowances arc to be
made.

Chap, /X. MECHANICS. 29

Art. 16.
Of the Lever.

A Lever is a bar of iron, wood, &c. one part
of which is fupported by a prop, and all other
parts turn or move on that prop, as their centre
of motion ; and its length, on each iide of the
prop, is called its arms : the velocity or motion *j

of every part of thefe arms, is diredly as its dif-
tance from its centre of motion, by 3d law of cir-
cular motion.

The Lever — Obferve the following laws: Lawsofta^e

1 . The pov/er and weight are to each other, as i^ver.
their didances from the centre of motion, or from
the prop, refpeftively.*

2. The power is to the weight, as the diftance
the weight moves is to the dillance the power
pioves, refpedivcly.t

3. The power is to the weight, as^he perpen-
dicular afcent of the weight is to the perpendicu-
lar defcent of the power. |

4. Their velocities are as their diflances from
their centre of motion, by 3d law of circular mo-
tion.

Thefe Umple laws hold univerfally true in all Laws of the
mechanical powers or engines; tlierefore it is ^everhoiduni-
safy (from theie fimple principles) to compute inlitmecha-
:he power of any engine, either fimple or com- "^"^^^ P°^^^^^
Dound; for it is only to find hew much fwifter *"^^"^"' ^'
;he power moves than the weight, or how much
'arther it moves in the fame time ; and fo much
s the power, (and time of producing it) increaied
y the help of the engine.

* That is, the pov»'er P, fig. 8, v/hich is i multiplied into its difiance Y\g. S.

C, from the centre I2, is equal to the weight I2 multiplied into its dil-
mce AB r, each produft being i2.

t That is, the power multiplied into its diftance moved, is equal to the
weight multiplied into its diftance m.oved.

t That is, the power multiplied into its perpendicular defcent, is equal
J the weight multiplied into its perpendicular afcent.

30 MECHANICS. Chap, IX,

Art. 17. General Rules for computing the Power

OF ANY Engine.

1. DIVIDE either the diftance of the power
from its centre of motion, by the diftance of the
weight from its centre of motion. Or,

2. Divide the fpace paffed through by the pow-
er, by the fpace paffed through by the weight.
This fpace may be counted either on the arch de-
fcribed, or perperdiculars. And the quotient
will fliew how much the power is increafed by
the help of the engine.

Then multiply the power applied to the en-
gine, by that quotient, and the produft will be
the power of the engine, whether fimple or com-
pound.

EXAMPLES.

Fig. 8. Let ABC, fig. 8, reprefent a lever; then, to

compute its power, divide the diftance of the
power Pfrom its centre of motion BC 12, by the
diftance of the weight W, A B 1 ; and the quoti-
ent is I 2 : the power is increafed i 2 times by the
engine ; v/hich, multiply by the power applied
I, produces 12, the power of the engine at A, or
the weight W^, that will balance P, and hold the
engine in equilibrio. But fuppoie the arm A B to
be continued to E, then, to find the power of the |
engine, divide the diftance BC 12, by BE6; and
the quotient is two; Which multiplied by 1, the
power applied, produces 2, the power of the en-
gine, or weight w to balance P.

Or divide the perpendicular defcent of the pow-
er C D equal 6, by the perpendicular afcent E F
equal 3 ; and the quotient 2, multiplied by the j
power P equal i, produces 2, the power of the en-
,o:ine at E.

Zhap. IX, M E C H A N I t: S. 31

Or divide the velocity of the powei^ P equal 6; Art. 17,
3y the velocity of the weight w equal 3 ; and the
:][uotient 2, multiplied by the power i, produces
2, the power of the engine at E. If the power
P had been applied at 8, then it would have re-
:juired to have been i 1-2 to balance W, or w;
becaufe i 1-2 times 8 is 12, which is the momen-
tum of both weights W and w. If it had been
applied at 6, it muft have been 2 ; if at 4, it muft
have been 3 ; and fo on for any other diftance
from the prop or centre of motion.

— — •«'^5>o©o<S»" —

There are Four kinds of Levers, Art. 18.

1. THE common kind, where the prop is Different
placed between the weight and power, but gene- kinds of 1©-
rally neareft the weight.

2. When the prop is at one ead, the power at
the other, and the weight between them.

3. When the prop is atone end, the weight at
the other, and the power applied between them.

4. The bended lever, which differs only in
form, but not in properties, from the others.

Thofe of the firil and fecond kind have the fame
properties anti powers, and are real mechanical
powers, becaufe they increafe the power ; but
the third kind is a decreafe of power, and only
ufed to increafe velocity, as in clocks, watches,
and mills, where the firfl mover is too flow, and
the velocity increafed by the gearing of the
wheels.

The machinery of the human frame is compofed Great power
bf the lall kind of lever ; for when we lift a weight ^^^^^^ ^^JS^
by the hand, refting the elbow on any thing, the human frame.
mufcle that exerts the force to raife the weight,
is faftened at about one tenth of the diftance from

Art. iS.

MECHANICS.

Chap. IX't

the elbow to the hand, and inufl exert a force
ten times as great as the weight raifed ; there-
fore, he that can lift 561bs with his arm at a
right angle at the elbow^ exerts a force equal to
56olbs. by the mufcles of his arm. 'Wonderful
is the power of the mufcles in thefe cafes. Here
appears the reafon, why men of low ftature are
ftronger than thofe of high, in proportion to their
thicknefs, as is generally the cafe.

'•■<<^S>o©o<®»"

A.rt. ig.

Fig. 9-

Compound

Lever.

Compound Lever„

I F feveral levers are applied to a£l one upon
another, as 2 i 3, in fig. p, where No. i is of
the firfl kind,. No. 2 of the fecond, and No. 3 of
the third. The power of thefe levers, united to
ad on the weight Wj is thus found by the follow-
ing rule, which will hold univerfally true in any
number of levers united, or wheels (which is ii-
miiar thereto) afting upon one another;

11 U L E,

General rule. ^^' Multiply the power P, into'the length of
^il the driving levers fucceilivelyj and note the
prc.'iuft.

2d, Tiieii multiply all the leading fevers intd
one another fuccellively, and note the product.

3d. Divide the firfl produdl by the laft, and the
quotient will be the weight w, that will hold the
machine in equilibrio.

This rule is founded on the firft law of the
lever, art. 16, and on this principle, viz.
Fundamental If the Weight w, aud powcr P, are fuch, that
SeTfbrci?-^^ when fufpended on any compound machine, whe-

Chap, IX' MECHANICS.' 3^

tlier of levers united, or of wheels and axles, Art. 19.
tlicv hold the machine in eqiiilibrio. Then, if cuiating the

1 Tj • 1^* T 1 • ^ ^1 !• r* 11 power or ve-

the power P, is iTiiiitipiicd into the radius of all locity of any
tile driving wheels, or lengths of the drivino- le- combination

1 Ti ' r^L ^ J J ^1 • ^ of wheels or

vers, and the product noted; and the weight w levers.
miiitiplied into the radius of all the leading
vv^heels, or length of the leading levers, and the
produft noted ; thefe products will be equal. If
we had taken the velocities or circumferences of
the wheels, inftead of their radius, they would
have been equal alfo.

On this principle is founded ail rules for calcu-
lating the power and motion of wheels in mills,
«^c. See art. 20 &: 74.

E X A M P L E S.

Given, the power P equal to 4, on lever 2, at Fig. 9.
8 diftance from the centre of motion. Required,
with what force lever i, faftened at 2 from the
centre of motion of lever 2, mufc a<St, to hold the.
lever 2 in equilibrio.*

By the rule, 4x8 the length of the long arm,
is 32, and divided by 2, the length of the Hiort
arm, quotes 16, the force required.

Then 16 on the long arm, lever i, at 6 from
the centre of motion. Required, the weight on
the fnort arm, at 2, to balance it.

* In order to abreviate die work, I fliall hereafter ufe the
following Algebraic figns, viz*
The lign -\- more, for addition.
— lefs, for fubtraclion.
X multiplied, for raultipli cation.
.|. divided, for divifion.
n equal, for equality-
Then, inftead of 8 more 4 equal 12, I Ihall write 84-/.rri2.
Inftead of 12 lefs 4 equal 8, 12 — 4 = 8. Inftead of 6 rnulci-
Iplied by 4 equal 24, 6x4 = 24- And infteaJ of 24 divided by
3 equal 8, 24 { ^ =:8.

34 , MECHANICS. Chap,, IX,

^rt. 19. By the rule, 16x6 — 96^ which divided by 2,

the fhort arm, quotes 48, for the weight re-
quired.

Then 48 is on the lever 3, at 2 from the cen-
tre. Required, the weight at 8 to balance it. ,"

Then 48X2 = 96, which, divided by 8, th
length of the long arm, quotes 12, the Vk^elght
required.

Given, the power P=:4, on one end of the com-
bination of levers. Required, the weight w, on
the other end, to hold the whole in equilibrio.

Then by the rule, 4X8X6X2 = 384 the produft of
the pov/er multiplied into the length of all the
driving levers, and 2X2X8 = 32 the producfl of all
the leading levers, and 384 | 32 = 12 the weight
w required.

Art. 20. THE fame rule holds good in calculating the
Foundation of powcrs of machines, confining of wheels whether
findb^^the'"' ^^i"^ple or compound, by counting the radius of
motion of the whccls as the levers ; and becaufe the diame-
numbeJ- of tersand circumferences of circles are proportional ;
cogs to pro- we may tak^ the circumference inllead of the ra-
duce motions. ^\^^^_^ ^ud it wlll be the fame. Then again, be-
caufe the number of cogs in the wheels, coaftitute
the circle, we may take the number of cogs and
rounds inllead of the circle or radius, and the j e-
fult will be the fame.
Fig. II. Let Fig. 1 1 reprefent a water-mill (for grind-

ing grain) double geared :

Number 8 The water-wheel, J

4 The great cog-whcci, 1:

2 The w allow cr, '1^

3 The counter cog-wheel,

1 The trundle.

2 The mili-iiones.

€hap. XL MECHANICS. 3^

And let the above numbers alfo reprefent the Ait. 20,
radius of the wheels in feet.

Now fuppofe there be a power of 5001b. on the
water-wheel, required what will be the force ex-
erted on the mill-Hone, 2 feet from the centre.

Then, by the rule, 500X8X2X1=8000, and Thepoweroa
14X3X2 = 24, by which divide 8000, and it quotes ^^'heTrgTven,
1333,33 lb. the power or force required, exerted tofiudthe
on the mill-lbone two feet from its centre, which Ef,'tJe' ^11?^"^
is tlie mean circle of a 6 feet ftonc. — And as the ftone.
velocities are as thedillance from the centre of mo-
tion, by 3d law of circular motion, art. 13, there-
fore, to lind the velocity of the mean circle of the
ftone 2, deduce the following rule, viz,

ill. Multiply the velocity of the watcr-v/heel Ruietofind
into the radius or circumference of all the driving; th^veiocity oi

, o tne mean cir-

wheels, iucceifively, and note tiie product. cieofamiil-

2. Multiply the radius or circumference of all *^°'^^"

the leading v/iieels, fuccefiively, and note the pro-

du<0; ; divide the firft by the lait produil, and the

quotient wiJl be the anfwer.

But obferve here, that the driving wheels in

this rule, are the leading levers in the lafl rule.

.EXAMPLES.

Suppofe the velocity of the vi^^ater- wheel to be
12 feet per fecond ; then by the rule 12X4X3X2 = -
288 and 8^2X I =16 by which divide the firft pro-
duct 288, and it quotes 1 8 feet per ft-cond, the ve-
locity of the flone, 2 feet from its centre.

Povjer decreafes as ^notion increofes. Art. 21.

IT may be proper to obferv here, that as the
velocity of the ftone is incrcaferl, the powf r to
move it isjdecreafed, and as its velocity is dec reaf-

6 MECHANICS. C/iap, IX.

Art. 21. cd, the power on it to move it is increafed, by

2d general law of meciianical powers. This holds
univerfally true in all engines that can poffibly be
contrived ; which is evident froni tiie ift law of
the lever, viz. the power irmltiplied into its ve-
locity or diftance moved, is equal to the weight
multiplied into its velocity or diftance moved.
Rule tajfind Hcncc the genera,] rule to compute the power
erted*tr4ove 9^^"y engine, fimple or compound, art. 17. If
imiu-ftone. you have the moving power, and its velocity or
di.rtance moved, given, and the velocity or dis-
tance of the weight, then, to find the weight
(which, in mills, is the force to move the flone,
<^c.) divide that produft by the velocity of t^e
weight or mill-fLon^e, &cq. and it quotes the weight
or force exerted on the ftone to move it : But a
certain quantity or proportion of this force is lojjl:,
in order to obtain a velocity to tli^^ done ; v/hlch
is fliewn in art, 29.*

ArL. 22, j^Q Power gained by enlarging Underplot Water-

IV he els.

No power THIS fccms a proper time to fnev/ the abfiu'di-

freafmg Ae" ty of the idea of inerealing the power of the miiJ,
diameter of by eularging the diameter of the water- v/ heel, on-
tir-vJh2eis7o^i the principle of lengthening the kver, or by dou-
the principle blc gearing mills where fingle gears will do \ b^-

of lengtheniiis c ^\ -^i i • <- i t • "

the lever. caule the pov/cr can neither be increaiea nor di-
miniihed by the help of engines, v/hile the velo-
city of the body moved is to remain the fame,

EXAMPLE.

Fig. ir.

Suppofe wc enlarge the diameter of the water-
wheel from 8 to 16 feet radius, fig, 11, and leave

* Philofophers have hitherto attributed this lofs of power to friftion,
which is owing; to the viiinertia of matter.

Chap, IX, M E C H A N I C S. 37

the other vv? heels the laine ; then, to. find the vc- Art. a^.
locity of the fconc, allowing the velocity of the
periphery of tlie water-v/heel to be the Ihrne (12
feet per fecoud) ; by the rule, i2X.iX3X2==288,
and 16X2X1—32, by which divide 288, it quotes
p feet in a fecond, for the velocity of the ftone.

''I'hen, to find the power by the rule for that
purpofe, art. 20, 500 X 16 X 2 X i :::t^QQO, and
4X3x2^:24, by which divi'de 16000, it quotes
666^^6l\y. the power. But as velocity as well as
power, is aeceiiary in BiiHs, we fxialil- be ofeiiged,
iii order to reftorc the vdocity, to enlarg-e the
^reat cog-wheel froin 4 to .8 radius.

Then, to find the velocity, 12x8X3X2=576^
md 16X2X1=32, by which divide 576, it quotes
t&, the velocity xTS before.

:. Th^eoiy tro-fiiid tlie power by the ruie^ ^rt. 20,
t will be 333,33, as befafe.

\- Therefore no pov/er can be g.aincd, upon the
brinciple of lengthening the lever, by enlarging
die v/ater-wk^el.

I- The true- advantages tha^t large whqels lii;ave .The true ad-
iver fmali oaes, arifes- from the \vidtko4"the buc- 7^"'^''-? ^^^

, . 1 /- I, • 'J- large wheels

:ets bearing bu.t a imail piroportmn up: tiic ra.uiiis have over
>f th,^ wheel ; beca.ufe if thjs. radius af tlije wh^elf'"^^^ "''*''
)e 8 feet, ai'id the v/idth.of the bulcfcet or il.Qat-. •
board but i foat, the lioat takes up; but i-S of
he arm, and tjlie v-^atcr may he faciei to^(S^ faiiflyr
;ipon the end of the arm and to advantage. But
jf the r:;dlus of the v/heel be but 2 feet, and the
v^idth of the float r fo£>€, part of the v/ater
i^ill act on the middle of the arm, and act to dif-
d vantage, as the float takes up half the arm.
^'he large wheel alio ferves the purpofe of a lly-
Ihttl ; (art. 30) it likewife keeps a more regular
lotion, aaci. cafls off back water better. See art,
o.

Bus thfi expencc of tlicfe large wheels is tabe
d^cD into confidera:t.ioi3, and then the buildei'

38 MECHANICS. Ghap, IX,

Art. 22. will find that there is a maximum fize, (fee art.

44) or a fize that will yield him thegrealeit pro-
fit.

Art. 23. ^0 Power gained by double gearing Mills ^ but feme.

loft,

Nopo-iv-er I might alfo go on to fliew that no power or

biT^elrJ'^b"" ^^"^^.ntage is to be gained by double gearing Mills,
feme loft.' upon any other principles than the following,
viz.

1. The motion neceffary for the flone, can
fometimes be obtained w^ithout having the trun-
dle too fmall, becaufe we are obliged to have the
pitch of the cogs and rounds, and the fize of the
fpindle large enough, to bear the ftrefs of the
power. This pitch of gear and fize of fpindle
may bear too great a proportion to the radius of
the trundle (as does the fize of the float to the ra-
dius of the water-wheel, art 22) and may work
hard. Therefore there may be a lofs of power
on that account ; as there can be a lofs but no gain,
by 3. general lav/ of mechanical powers, art. 15.

2. The mill may be made more convenient ior
two pair of flones to one water-vvhecli*

•((S'O*^ <^> —

Art, 24. Of the Pulley.

Fig. 10- 2. The pulley is a mechanical power well

known. One pulley, if it be moveable by the

Lofles fuftain- * Many and great have been the lofTes fuftained by mill;builders, on ac-
ed by errors- count of their not properly underftanding thefe principles. I have otteu met
with great high wheels built, M'here thofe of half the fize and expence would
<Jo better ; and double gears, whrt-e llngle would do better, Sec. i;c.

Chap. IX, MECHANICS. 39

weight doubles the power, becaufe each rope fuf- Art. 24.
tains half the weight.

But if two or more pulleys be joined together of the pulley,
in the common way, then tlie eaiiefl: way of com- aneafyway to

•' ' . •' , f, compute Its

puting their power is, to count the number ot power,
ropes that join to the lower or moveable block,
and fo many times is the power increafed ; becaufe
all thefe ropes have to be fhortened, and all run
into one rope (called the fall) to which the mov-
ing power is applied. If there be 4 ropes the
power js increafed fourfold.*. See plate I, fig. 10.

— ••■«^c<^^g»..~—

Of the TVheel and Axle, Art. 2 5.

3. THE wheel and axle, fig. 17, is a mechanical
power, the fame as the lever of the firllkind ; there
fore the power is to the weight, as the diameter of
the axle is to the diameter of the wheel; or the pow-
er multiplied into the radius of the wheel, is
Equal to the weight multiplied into the radius of
the axlet, in an equilibrium of this engine.

Of the inclined Plain. Art. 26.

4. Tlic inclined plain is the fourth meclianicai inclined plain
bower : and in this the power is to the weight, "^ "'^"

as the height of the plain is to its length. This

■ * In this engine there is great lofs of original poM'er, by the gVeat friction ^ .

)f the pullies and ropes in bendina;, &c. But there is a very great improve- """

tient lately difcovercd, on the pulley, which is as follows : Make a fyftem r,n.

if pullies of Inch conftruftion, that when thofe of the upper block all J!|„j^,;,,^,"^ °

iiKed together on one pin will revolve in equal time, and the fame in the

Dv.'sr blofk, which effeetually evades all the friction of the fides of the pidlies

nd ropes pailing through the blocks. But as it is almofi; impollibie to pro-

ortion the diameters of the pullies to the motion of the ropes fo exadtly,

L will be beft to let them have liberty to turn on the pin, fo as to ftretch all

he ropes equally.

t There is but little lofs of original power in this engine, becaufe it lias
St little f^-lclian.

pullic

40 M E C H A N I iC S. Ch&p, I]t>

Art. a6. is- of ufe in rolling licavy bodies, fuch as barrels,

iioglheads, cxc. into wheel-carriages, Sec. and for
letting th€m down again. S«€ plate V, fig. i.
If the height of the plain be half its length, then
half the force will roll the body u^ the plain, that
would lift it perpendiculaiiy.

——«^i^>:<S> )•■'—*

Art. 27. ^-f ^^'^ fVedge,

^, , c. The v/cdjre' is only ail inclined plain.

The wedge •■j q j ■•

equal to an in- Whence, in the common form of it, the power

ciined plain, applied will be to the rehftance to be overcome,

as the thicknefs of the v/edge is to the length

thereof. This is a very great mechanical power,

and may be faid to excel all the reft ; becaiife with

it we can effeft, v/hat vre cannot v/ith any other

in the fame time, and I think may be computed

in the following manner.

iluietocom^ If the wedge be 12 inches long and 2 inches

putethepow- thick, ■ then the power to hold it in ecuilibrio is

erofthe ' , , ,- n i • ''en

■wedge. as I to oalancc 12 reintance ; that is, 12 rehiLance

preiung on each iide of the vv-edge, ^ and when
ftruck with a mallet, the whole force of the gra-
vity of the mallet, added to the vt'hoie force of
the agent exerted in the fcroke, is communicated
to thfe wedge in the time it continues to move :
and this force to produce cflbft, is as the fquarc
of tlie velocity, with wliich the raalict ftrikes,

* NiTX'.- if -^'C coniiderl'iiat t'le one I2 aftlag on nrre fide of the %ved<:;e re-
prefent3the re-aftionof the ground on tlie imdci'fide of tlic inclined plain, we
will then plainly fee That the v/edgc and inclined plain lire both one thing;
for if this vredge be applied to raife a weiglit of 12, it will require 2 inviead
of I to drive it under the M-eight. Eiit if the groimd -sv-ould give way u'.^der
the wedge a', eafi'.y, and ir.ove the fame dill^ance that the weight raifes, then
tlie weiglvt-.yould be raifcdonly Iialfthe height ; confcquently, i v,-onld drive
the wedge under t.iie weiglit, and this yielding of the ground equal to the
vaifing of the -^veight, will truly reprefent the yielding of the cleft on each
fide of the v/edge. And this is the true principle of the wedge notwithflaud'
ing fo rauch has been faid to prove it to fce etjiial to 2 inciiued plane?. See
Fergufon's Jet^ures-

Chap. IX. M E C H A N I C S. 4I

mnltipliedinto its weight ; therefore the mallet Art. 27.
fhould not be too iarge, (fee art. 44) becaufe it
may be too iieavy for the workmaa*s ilrength,
and will meet too much reiiftance from the air,
fo that it will loofe more by lefTening the veloci-
ty, than it vvall gain by its weight. Suppoie a
mallet of loib. Itrike \vith 5 velocity, its efi'e6l-
ive momentum 250; but if it Ifrike with 10 ve-
locity, then its cffeftive momentum is 1000.
The effeits produced by the fhrokes will be as
250 to 1000 ; and all the force of each ftroke, ex-
cept what may be deftroyed by the fri6lion of the
wedge, is added in the wedge, until the fum of
thefe forces amount to more than the reiillance
of the body to be fplit, therefore it muft give v/ay ;
but when the wedge doss not move the whole
force is deflroyed by the fri<ftion. Therefore tlie
lefs the inclination of the (ides of the wedge, the
greater refiftance \ve can overcome by it, becaufe
it will be eaiier moved by the fcroke.

■<^^^^>" —

Gf the Screw. Art. 28.

6. THE Screw is the laft mentioned mechani- principles and
cal power, and is a circular inclined plain (v/hich P°^^'"'*^» °^ *'^"

•11 1 • -A ^ fcrew.

wiU appear by v/rapping a paper, cut m form of
an inclined plain round a cylinder) and the lever
of the firft kind combined (the lever being applied
to force the weight up in the inclined plain) and
is a great mechanical power; its ufe is botii for pref-
fure and railing great weights. The power ap-
plied is to the v/cight it will raife, as the diftance
through which the weight moves, is to the dif-
tance through which the power moves ; that is, as
thediftait^ceof the threads of the fcrew, is to the cir-
cle the power defcribes : fo is the power to the
weight it will raife. If the diftance of the thread

42 MECHANICS. Chap, /X.

Art. 2g. be half an inch, and the lever be 15 inches radius

and the power applied be lolb. tlien the power
will deicribe a circle of 94 inches, while the
weight raifes half an inch; then, as half an inch
is to 94 inches, fo is jolb to i888lb the weight
the engine would raife with lolb power. But
this is fuppofing the fcrew to have no fri(n:ion, of
which it has a great deal.

Perhaps an improvement might be made on the
fcrew, for fome particular ufes, by introducing
rollers to take olf the friction. See art. 33.

Art. 2g. WE have hitherto confidered the action and
effed: of thefe engines, as they would aniwer to
the ftriftnefs of mathematical theory, were there
no fuch thing as fridion or rubbing of parts upon
each other ; by which means, philofophers have
allowed, that one third of the effetl of the ma-
chine is, at a medium, deftroyed : w^hicli brings
"US to treat of it next in courfe.^'

Art. 30. Of the Fly-'ivhcd, and its Ufe. ^ .1

BEFORE I difmifs the fubjeft of mechanical
powers, I fhall take notice of the fly-wheel, the

One third of * ^^^ I think it is evident, that this !ofs of i -3 of the original power in

the original producing efFefts by machines, arifes from the vifinertia of the matterthatis
power loft, to to be moved. For fuppofe the machine be an elevator, applied to elevate
overcome in- wheat, fig. 17, art. 34, it is evident, that if we apply only as much power as
ertia, in many '^vill hold the weight of the wheat in the buckets in equilibrio, we will have
machines. ^*^ motion .- then in order to obtain a lively motion, we will be obliged to ap-

ply a farther power, which I expeft we will find will be nearly 1-3 of the
i whole, art. 41 > and this 1-3 part of the power will be continually employed
in changing the ftate of the wheat from reft to a lively motion. Befides, it
is {hewn m art. 3 1 , that the friftion of moft machines is not more than r-20
part of the weight upon a plain; and by the difference betM'een the diame-
ters of the wheeh and gudgeons, is reduced to i-iooo part of the weight,
or the moving power.

Chap, IX, MECHANICS. 43

life of which is to regulate the motion of engines, Art. 30.
and mould be made of cafl metal, of a circular F^y^^'ie'^^ "«»
form, that it may not meet with mucii reiiitance power,
from the air.

Many have taken this wheel for an increafer of
power, wliereas it is, in reality, a confiderable de-
flroyer of it ; which appears evident, when we
coniider that it has no motion of its own, but re-
ceives all its motion from the firll mover, and,
as the fridion of the gudgeons and refiilance
of the air are to be overcome, it cannot be done
v/ithout fonie power ; yet this wheel is of great
ufc in <many cafes, viz.

I ft. For regulating tlie power, where it is ir- its ufe.
regularly appHed, fach as the treadle or crank
moved by foot or hand, asfpinning-wheels, turn-
ing lathes, iiax-mills, or where fteam is applied,
by a crank, to produce a circular motion.

2d, Where the refiftance is irregular, by jerks,
Sec. fiich as faw-mills, forges, fiitting-milis, pov/-
der-mills, &c.

The fly-wheel, by its inertia, regulates the
motion ; becaufe, if it be very heavy, it will re-
quire a great miany little Hiocks or impulfes of
pov/er to give it a confiderable velocity, and it
will require as many equal Ihocks of refiftance to
dellroy faid velocity, by axiom 3, art. i.

While a rolling or flitting mill is running emp-
t}/, the force of the v/ater is employed in
generating velocity to tiie fly-wheel [a heavy
water-wheel will have the Ibme efleft] which
force, fummed up in the fly, will be fuiiicicnt to
continue the motion, v/ithout much abatement,
vhile the flieet is running between the rollers;
whereas, had the force of the water been lofl
I while the mill was empty, fjje would have flack-
ened in motion too much before the fliect got
through. This may be the cafe w'hcre water is
fcarce.

«.tf?^ V;>1 V?>^ '-ei'^ t<^ '-i?^ '-<i^ Vi>^ «<5>^ t<i^ s^^-j ^i?^ <^;?^ <-<^

CHAPTER

Art. 31

J'riftion.

0F Friction.

ROM what I can gather from different
._ authors,* and by my own experiments, I
conclude that the doftrine of fridion is as fellows,
and we may fay it is fubjed to the following laws,
viz.

Its laws.

Laws of F rid ion.

1 . It is neither increafed nor decreafed by in-
crealing or decreaiing the furfaces of contaft of
the moving body.t

2. It is in proportion to the weight and veloci-
ty, conjointly, of the moving body. J

Philofophers
opinions about
it.

Fig. 13-

It is equal to
near 1-3 of the
weight oil a
plain.

Ijicreafed by
velocity.

* Philofophers, treating of friftion, feera to agree in telling us, that if a
perfeffly hard body of any weight could be made perfeiliy fmooth andeVen,
and laid on a horizontal plain perfeftly hard, fmooth and even, that then tlie
leaft force would move the faid weight in any horizontal direftion ; and that
it is the roughnefs of the beft poliftied and fmoothed bodies, that is the whole
caufe offriftion; becaufe the body in being moved, has firft to be raifed
over the prominent parts, which is of the nature of an inclined plain. They
alfo fay, in treating of the attraftion of cehefion, that if two bodies of the
fame kind of matter could be made perfe(!:tly fmooth and even, lo that the
parts would meet exactly, they would ftrongiy cohere or ftick together by
attraftion ; by which it appears that the docT:rine of friftion is not yet well
explained.

t They alfo fay, that it is proved by experiment, that if a fquare piece of
wood or brafs,as F,fig. 1 3, four inches wide, and i inch thick,be made fmooth,
and laid on a fmooth plain, AB C D, and the Vi^eight P hung over a pullie,
that it will require the weight P to be nearly 1-3 part of the weight of the
body F, to draw it along ; and that the fame, whether it be on its flat fide
or edge. This proves law i£, that friction is not increafed by increafng
the furface of contaft,

\ It has alfo been proved by experiment, that if we fix the lever L, to draw
the weight F, making o its centre of motion, and by a covd make F faft to
the lever at the point i.and hang the weight Q^at the end of the lever over a
pullie, and make O^juft fufficient to move F ; O v/iU then be found to be 1-7

Chap. Z. M E C H A N I C S. 45

3. This proportion clecreafes as tl.e weight and ^j.^ ^r.
velocity increafes, bat by what ratio, is not de-
termined,*

of P, becauie it will have to move F but r-y of the diftance. Then move the

cord fiOiiii to 2, and we find the ^T eight Q_niuft now be doubled equal to 2-7 Isdireftlyas

of Pto move F ; (the reafon is evident from the laws of the lever) becaufe the diftance

F is double the diltance from the centre of motion that it v/as at i, and it °^ t^e lub-

will h^ve to move double the diflance if the lever, or power O^uiove the fame bing lurfa-

diftance. This iliews that friction is as the diftance from the centre of mo- ces irom the

tion; that is, it is as the dianieter of the gudgeons, double diameter, double centre of

friclion ; tlrerefore gudgeons ought to be as fmallas poliible, lo as to be fuf- motion.

ficicHtly ftrong to endure the llrefs of the weight.

* They have alfo proved by experiment, that if F be a brafs plate of 6 j . .

ounces, and A F> C D a brafs piate, both well polifhedand oiled, then it will _j.g„rgj :

require the weight P to be nearly 2 ounces to mo\ e F. But if F be loaded jj^-gXi. nro-

with 6, 8 or lolb. then'a fixth part of that weight will be fuitlcient to draw it „ ^^- " -^i
' ,^, ■ , , ■ ,. . ^ ■ ? . • 1 ^ J r- portion with

along. This proves that the ratio ot the triCtion to the weight decieales, as '., ...gj,,]^^

the -weight increafes : the reafon of which decixafe ot pioportion I take to be ''^

'as follows, viz. Great part of the friction ariies iroin the cobefion of the
farts, even thegreafe put on to deftroy the coheiion, has a coheiion of its The ratio
iown ; and this coheiion of parts «r of the greafe, wiil i:otincreaie with the decreafes as
kveightor velocity. — Again, if we allow the friclion to be occafifcned by the the weight
kvjeightof the body having to be railed over the prominent parts of the rub- and velocity
jbing furface, it is evident, that when it is raifed by being flarted, that it has increales.
not to be railed again ; therefore the greater the velocity, the lei's proporti-
on will this refiitance (occalioued by the railing of the body) bear to the ve-
locity.

I have made an experiment fiird.'ar to that of fig. 13, with a fiat lided „
jglafs bottle, on a fmooth poplar plank, oiled ; alio on a well polilhed Heel ' 5
plate oiled, and when loaded with lolb. it was drawn by lib. and when load-
ed with 221b. it was drawn by 2lb. and when loaded with 6olb. it was drawn
by 4 1-2 lbs. which is about 1-13 part : and the motion was greatly accele-
rated, which gives realon to conclude, that lefs weight would have continu-
icd the motion, after once begun.

I. V/e may leafoiiably lupp'Oj'e, that the gudgeons ofmills, &c. well polilhed, Ratio of
running on good Itones or brafs boxes, Sec. and well oiled, have as littie fric- fj-j^ion (-„
tion as the bottle and plank ; and as we find that the proportion of fri^-ion ^jjg weiffht
decreafes as the weight increafes, we may fuppofe that in great vveights it
'will not amount to more than 1-20 part of the weight, fuppohng the gudge- jsfot more
ons to be the full l;ze or diameter of the wheels, for fb they muft be in order ^Uay, j.oq
to be on the fame principles of plains rubbing together. Upon theJe princi- ^^.^ ^
pies I compute the fri&ion of the gudgeons of a well hung water-wlieel, as pj^jj^ jj^"
ioUov/s : viz. As the diameter of the wheel is to the diameter of the gud- oreat
geons, lb is 1-20 part of the %veight of the wheel, to the weight that will ba- "yejo-i^j-
laiiG£ the friction. ■

EXAMPLE.

Suppofe a wheel 15 feet diameter, with gudgeons 3 inches diam.eter, and
v/e!gl;ing403oro. by fuppoi;tion ; then, lay as 15 feet is to 3 iache:, ibis Not more
4000 I 2 J to 3,3!b. the weight on the periphery of the wheel that v/iU ba- than i-rooo
iance the friction of 400olb. : which is lefs than i-iooo part ef the weight, part in great
But note that for the fame reaforis, tiiat friftion does ndt increase with the machines
velocity in direOl proportion, neithei; v/ill it decreafe in direct: proportion and great
iVitn tne velocity of the rubbing furface of the gudgeon : hence v/e ir.iift con- weights.

MECHANICS.

C/iap. X,

Art. 31. 4. It is greatly varied by the fmoothnefs or

roughnefs, hardnefs or foftnefs, of the furfaces of
contadl of the moving bodies,

5. A body without motion has no friftion •
therefore, the lefs the motion, the lefs tlie fric-
tion.

Art. 32

To reduce
friftion.

By friction
wheels.
Fig. 14-

Of reducing Fri^ion,

TO reduce friftion, we mufl, by mechanical
contrivances, reduce the motion of the rubbing
parts as much as poflible ; which is done, either
by making the gudgeons imall and the diameter of
wheels large, or by fixing the gudgeons to run on
fridion-whecls. Thus, let A, fig. 14, reprefent
the gudgeon of a wheel fet to run on the verge
of two wheels of caft metal paffuig each other a
little, and the gudgeon laying between them.
It is evident, that as A turns, it will turn both
friftion-vv heels ; and, if the diameter of gudgeon
A is 2 inches, and that of the wheels 12, then
the wheels will turn once while A turns 6 times,
fo that the velocity of the gudgeons C C of the
v^heels, is to the velocity of the gudgeon A, as i
is to 6, fiippollng them to be equal in fize ; but as
there are 4 of them to bear A, they may be but
half the diameter, and then their velocity will be
to that of A, as I is to 1 2 ; or A might be fet on
one wheel, as at B, with fupporters to keep it on;
and, if friftion-wheels are added to fridion-
wheciS, the friftion may be reduced to almoft no-
thing by that means.

cl'jcie aj^ain that the friftion i"> more than i-rooo part. By which it ap-
pears, that the friction ofthe gudgeons, •weil fet on good ftores or brafs
boxe<!, i<^, not in miiin v.^orthy of the expence of evading. It bears but a fmall
proportion to the friftion or refiflance of the air, e(]3ecially where the velo-
!^ity is great. See art. 9, and 9th law of ialiing bodies.

hap. X. MECHANIC S. 47

Late Invention to reduce Friclion. ^**^^'^- 33*

WHEEL-CARRI AGES, pullies, and fuch Rollers appii-
^heels as have large axles in proportion to their l^-^l^.^H^ "''*
lameters, have much friftion. There has been
latedifcovery, ii) England, oFappiying the prin-
iple of the roller to them ; which may be io done
s almoll totally to deftroy the friction.

The eafleft method poiTibie, of moving heavy
odics horizontally, is tiie roller.

Let A B, fig. 15, reprefent a body of 100 tons Fig. 15-
k^eight (with the underiide perfc(!:lly ImootU
nd even) fet on two rollers, perfectly hard,
mooth, and round, rolling on the horizontal
aain C D, perfectly hard, fmooth, and even ; f^iJ^^^*"" '"
t is evident that this body is lupported by two
ines perfeftly perpendicular, and, if globes were
fed inftead of rollers, the leafl force would move
t in any horizontal diredion ; even a fpider's web
/ould be fufficient, giving it time to overcome
he vilinertia of the body : But as perfeil hard-
efs, fmoothnefs, Sec, are not attainable, a little
fiction will ftill remain.

This principle is, or may be, applied to wheel-
iarriages, in the following manner ;
j Let the outlide ring BCD, fig. 16, reprefent Fig.r^.
jhe box of a carriage-wheel, the infide circle A
jhe axle, the circles a a a a a a the rollers round
he axle between it and the box, and ti.!e inner
ing a thin plate for the pivots of the rollers to
un in, to keep them at a proper diflance from
ach other. When the wheel turns the rollers
-afs round on the axle, and on the infide of the
ox, and we may fay without friftion, becauie

here is no rubbing of the parts paft one rmother.'*

* To explain this, let \\i fuppofs the rollers aaaaaa to have cogs, and the
aft; A, and b«x t* have cogi aUb, the rollers £'.n»rii)j^int4( tUe Ih-^tt iiid 'vat*

^;?>^ VC7-) "^-^S-i '<i>i ' ^^ t:i>5 (.£;>:) t<j?^ t<;>i ^i:>5 (<::>2 •<5>^c^^

CHAPTER XL

— 1^.l

Art. 34. Of Ma.xIxMUms, or the greatest Effects ot

ANY Machine.

Effeft of a

machine,

■wha.t.

Old theory of
Tnaximum,
motion, and
load of en-
gines.

HE efFeft of a machine, is the diftance whici
it raoves or the velocity with which i]
moves any body to which it is applied to give mo,
tion, in a given time ; and the v/eight of the bod]
multiplied into its diftance moved, or into its ve;
locity, fnews the effeft.

The theory publillied by pliilofophers, and r
ccived and tauglit as true, for feveral centuriesi,
paft, is, that any machine will wOrk with itS;
greateft perfection when it is charged with juft

The princi- the infide of tlie box. >Jow it is evident, that if the box will turn round the
pies of the ap- axle, it m.uft be without any Aiding of parts ; (and in faft, the prominent parts
plication of of the rollers, axle and box, will aft as cogs ) then, if the rollers and axle bC)
rollers ex- all of one diameter, they will have an equal number of cogs ; and as the dia-
plained. meter of the box will be 3 times the diameter of the rollers, it will have

3 times as many cogs. Now it is evident, that the axle mufl turn i i-Jf.
times round, before the lame cogs of the rollers and Ihaft will meet, that
Vv'ere together when it ftarted ; becaufe, in that time the rollers will have
moved over 1-3 of the box : therefore the axle mult turn 3 3-3 times equal to
4times round, by the time the box is once meafured by the rollers. Then
fuppofe we hold the axle at reft, and turn the box round like a carriage wheel ;
then, while the box turns i 1-3 times round the axle, it will caufe the rollers,
to 'move once round; and while the box or wheel turns round the axle 4
times, the rollers will run round it three times. For fuppofe we divide the ;
box into 3 parts, B C andD, then beginning to turn the box from B to D, itt <
is evident, that v/hile the roller a b meafures once round the axle and returnsj
to the fame place, it will alfo meafure the box from B to C, ard C will havc-^i
taken the place of B, and the next revolution of the roller, D will take thejj'i
place of C, and the tliird revolution B returns to where it was at tirft, and '
the box has mcde 4 revolutions, while the roilers.have made 3 round the j
axle, and wkhout any iliding of parts, therefore without friftion- I might
go on to ihe^v, that if the axle be much larger than the rollers, they will alfi
work without fading.

Ghap, XT. MECHANICS. 49

4-9 of the power that would hold it in equilibrio. Art. 34.
and then its velocity will be juft 1-3 of the great-
eft velocity of the moving power.

To explain this, theyfuppofe the water-wheel,
fig. 17, to be of the underfhot kind, 16 feet dia- Fig. 17.
meter, turned by water ilfuingfrom under a 4feet
head, with a gate i foot wide, i foot high drawn ;
then the force will be 25olbs. becaufe that is the
"v^eight of the column of v/ater above tlie gate,
and its velocity will be 16,2 feet per fecond, as
jfhall be fliewn under the head of Hydraulics ; then
the wheel will be moved by a power of s^olbs.
and if let run empty, will move with a velocity
of 16 feet per fecond ; but if v/e hang the weight
W to the axle (of 2 feet diameter) with a rope,
and continue to add to it until it ftops the wheel,
and holds it in equilibrio, the weight will be
found to be 200oIbs. by the rule, art. 19; and
then the ellcd" of the machine is nothing, becaufe
the velocity is nothing : But as we decreafe the
weight W, the wheel begins to move, and its
velocity increafes accordingly ; and then the pro-
du(!l of the weight multiplied into its velocity,
will increafe until the weight is decreafed to 4-9
of 2000=888,7, which, multiplied into its dil-
tance moved or velocity, will produce the great-
eiv: effetl, and the velocity of the v/heei will then
be 1-3 of 16 feet, or 5,33 feet per fecond. So
fay thofe who have treated of it.

This will appear plainer to a young learner, if Theory of
lie will conceive this wheel to be applied to work maximums
an elevator, as E, fig. 17, to hoift wheat, and appircadon ^of
fuppoie that the buckets, when all full, contain an elevator.
9 pecks, and will hold the wheel in equilibrio, '^' ^
It IS evident it will then hoift none, becaufe it ha^
no motion ; then, in order to obtain motion, w^
ninft lefTcn the- quantity in the buckets, when th
wheel will begin to move, and hoift fafter an

5© MECHANIC S. Chap, XL

Alt. 34. fafter until the quantity is decreafed to 4-9, or 4
pecks, and then, by the theory, the velocity of the
machine will be r-3 of the greateil: velocity,
when it will hoili the greatefl quantity poffible in
a given time : for if we leffen the quantity in the
buckets below 4 pecks, the quantity hoiftedin any
given time will be lefFened.

This is the theory efliabliihed, for demonftra-
tion of which, fee Martin's Philofophy, vol. I,
page 185—187.

Art. 2,S* ^^^ Theory mveftigated, .

inveftio-ation ■''• "^ Order to invcfligate this theory, and thel
of the old better to underftand what has been laid, let uSi
theory. confidcr as follov/s, viz.

1. That the velocity of fpouting v/ater, under^
4 feet head, is r6 feet per fecond, nearly.

2. The feclion or area of the gate drawn, in
feet, multiplied by the height or the head in feet,*
gives the cubic feet in the whole column, which
multiplied by 62,5 (the weight of a cubic foot of
water j gives the weight or force of the wholes
column preiling on the wheel.

3. That the radius of the wheel, multiplied by
the force, and that product divided by the radius
of the axle, gives the weight that will hold the
wheel in equilibrio.

4. That the abfblnte velocity of the wheel,
fubtradled from the abfolute velocity of the wa-
ter, leaves the relative velocity with which the
water fbrikes the wheel in motion.

5. That as the radius of the wheel is to the ra-
dius of the axle, fo is the velocity of the wheel
to the velocity of the weight hoifted on the
axle.

i Chap, XL MECHANICS. 51,

6. That the effe-fts offpouting fluids are as the Art. 35.
fquares of their velocities (fee art. 45, law 6)

but the inflant force of ftriking fluids, are as their
velocities fimply. See art. 8.

7. Thflt the weight hoifted, multiplied into its
perpendicular afcent, givers the effeft.

8. That the weight of water expended, multi-
plied into its perpendicular defcent, gives the
power ufed per fecond.

On thefe pinciples I have calculated the follow-
ing fcale ; firfl fuppofing the force of llriking
fluids to be as the fquare of their ftriking or rela-
tive velocity, which brings out the maximum a-
greeably to the old theory, viz.

When the load, at equilibrio, is 2COO, then
the maximum load is 888,7 = 1 of 2000, when the
eifeft is at its greateft, viz. ^91, 98, as appears in
the 6th column, and then the velocity of the
wheel is 5,333 feet per fecond, equal to 1-3 of
16, the velocity of the M^ater, as appears in *

the 5th line of the fcale: but as there is an evi- old theory
dent eiror in the firfl principle of this theory, by <io"bted.
counting the inftant force of the water on the
wheel to be as the fquare of its flriking velocity,
therefore it cannot be true. See art. 41.

I then calculate upon this principle, viz. That
the inflant force of flriking fluids is as their velo-
city fimply, then the load that the machine will
carry, with its different velocities, will be as the
velocity fimply, as appears in the 7th column, and
the load, at a maximum, is iooolb~'r of 2000,
the load at equ;]ibrio, when the velocity of the
wheel is 8 feet = f- of 16 the velocity of the v/ater
per fecond ; and then the effedl is at its greateil,
asfhewn in the 8th column, viz. loco, as appears
in the 4tiiline of the fcale.

This I call the new theory, (becaufe I found New theory,
that William Waring had alfo, about the fame
tim.e, eftabllflied it, fee art. 38) viz. That when

52 M E C R A N I C S. Chap, XI,

Art. 55, any machine is charged with juft 1-2 of the load
that will hold it in eqnilibrio, its velocity will be
juft 1-2 of the natural velocity of the moving
power, and then its effed will be at a maximum,
or greateft poffible.

This appears to be the way by which this great
error has been fo long overlooked by philofophers,
and which has rendered the theory of no ufe in
practice, but led many into expenfive errors,
thereby bringing great difcredit upon philofb-
phy.

For demonftrations of the old theory, fee Mar-
tin's Phil. vol. I, page 185 — 187.

Ratio of the pov/er and
elFeft at a maximum, the

power being 4000 in

each cafe.

EfEedt, by new theory.

Weight hoiiled, accord-
ing to new theory.

EffeA, by the old theory

Weight hoiiled, accord-
ing to the old theory.

Maxi- I-"
mum by q
new the- '*-'
cry - - 'Nt-

^- Maximum
•"by old theo-

»^

"o^ r\ 0 r^GO Ox o <o

i-O CO O CO Tx -O "-O tN.
txo>0 C>coco r^co

O O O O CM '-C o o o
O -''> O 'O CO t\ o 10 o
>-(0j>.O CM cOco'-Ot^O

^' 00 "

Tx >-i O ^'i — O (M 0}

O CO "^^ O 00 C\ CNSO 00

■^ CO '-'^ ^J^/ "-C ^ -O (V^

*~r; >-* O '-'00 to'O'-" O

<sco OOOCO tVc^ coo

O H- CM »-<o KOO cr\ "-I '00

M M C)

Velocity of the weight
afccnding.

4-1

woo c^

^ c^

*V «S, JN f>

l-i W W-l

Velocity with which the

Avater (Irikes the wheel

-!->

in motion, or relative

■ f>

Telocity.

^VO CO

0 0 H4 M

l-H l-H (-1 l-H

Velocity of the wheel

per feeond, byfuppo-

4-1

fition.

ti^

C< 0 CX)

1— < 1— «

<o ^ "O ^

CNJ 0

1-^ 1— 1

^<3 ^- 0

-^ '^^

':a

— t CS|

o o
-5 ^

54 M E C H A N I C S. Chap, XL

i
Art. sS. New Theory doubted,

BUT although I know that the velocity of the
wheel, by this new theory is much nearer prac-
tice than the old, (tho' rather flow) yet I am led
to doubt the theory, for the following- reaions,
viz.

When I confider that there are i6 cubic feet oJ
water, equal looolbs. expended in a lecond, whichj
multiplied by its perpendicular defcent, 4 feet,prG-|
duces the power 4000. The ratio of the power:
and effect by the old theory is as 1 o to i ,47, and by
the new as 4 to i ; as appears in the 9th co-:j
lumn of the fcale ; which is a proof that the old
^ theory is a great error, and fufEcient caufe olj

doubt that there is yet fome error in the new, Ancii
as the fubjeft is of the greateft confequence in prac-
tical mechanics. Therefore I proceed, to endea-.|
vour to difcover a true theory, and will Ihew myi
work in order, that if I eftablilli a theory it ma)i
be the eafier underftood, if right ; or detected, i:!l
wrong.

Attempts made to difcover a true Theory,

In the fearch, I conflruded Fig 18, pi. II. whicl
reprefents a fimple wheel with a rope pafling ove:
it and the weight P, of 100 lbs. at one end to a^
by its gravity, as a power to produce efredls, b]
hoifting the weight w at the other end.

This feems to be on the principles of the lever
and overfhot wheel ; but with this exception, thai
the quantity ofdcfcending matter, ailing as po\y*
er, will fiill be the fame, although the Telocit;
will be accelerated, whereas in overiliot wheels
the power on the wheel is inverfely, as the velo
city of the wheel.

Here we muft confider,

£. That the perpendicular defcent of pov^er PJ

hap, XL MECHANICS. ^^

er fecond, multiplied into its weight, ftiews the An. 36.
ower.

2. That the weight w when multiplied into
;s perpendicular afcent gives the efFedt.

3. That the natural velocity of the falling bo-
y P, is t6 feet the firfl fecond, and the diflance
t has to fall 16 feet.

4. That we do fuppofe that the weight w, or
eliftance will occupy its proportional part of the
elocity. That is if w be = 4 P? the velocity

[vith which P will then defcend, will be 4 16 = 8
et per fecond,

5. If w be =: P, there can be no velocity, con-
sequently no effeft ; and if w — o then P will de-
tend 16 feet in a fecond, but produces no effect;
jecaufe, the power, although 1600 per fecond,
Is applied to hoift nothing.

; Upon thcfe principles I have calculated the fol-
lowing fcale.

A SCALE for determining the Maximum Charge, ani
Velocity of loolbs. defcending by its
Gravity.

■.^-

i
»i

ET'
fli
n

^25

o %

"MS

►a <
o m

^ o*

fD O

•-! p^*
►*!"<
^ 1-.

rt Ti
n> ft

X -^

• •a'

J2-

lb.

lOO

fect.
i6

cfq'

^ 1-1

Propo
and

^.1

rt^?

pi
9'

Is-

5"^

2.
5>

rt
►0

•n

^ w

■ O'

0 rt

<! rt

rt rt

r»

. <! rt

2. S-

'^ ^

0 rt

J-. 0

rt'-S

rt n,

rt-«T3

09 O

>— 0

'-.'is.
0 '^
0 ^

F-3

■^ rt

rt i—i
0 '13
0 ^

rt r»

0. 3

^ 5-

rt a

•^

lb.

feet.

1600

10:0

,16

15.84

15,84

1584

10 : ,01

1,6

14:4

144

1440

10 : I

3^2

12,8

256

1280

10 : 2

4>8

11,2

336

I I 20

10 : 3

6,4

9,6

384

960

10 : 4

400

Soo

10: 5

9,6

6,4

384

640

10 : 6

11,2

4.8

336

480

10 : 7

, 80

12,8

3^2

256

320

10 : 8

14,4

1,6

144

160

10 : 9

15,84

,I0

15,8

10 : 9,9

100

16,

maximum.

by new theory

%-=

Chap, Xi, MECHANICS. 57

By this fcale it ap|)ears, that when the weight Art. 36.
w isr=50-=:f- P the power ; the effect is at a max-
imum, viz. 400, as appears in the 6th column,
when the velocity is half the natural velocity,
v\l. 8 feet per fecond ; and then the ratio of the
power to the elFefl is as iq to 5, as appears in th&
Sth line.

f By this fcale it appears, that all engines that Theory for
kre moved by one conflant power,which is equably andbadofen-
kccelerated in their velocity (if any fuch there ginesmovedg
foe) as appears to be the cafe here muft be charg- Jhorri^tlon
ed with weight or refiftance equal to half the is equably ^c-
bloving power, in order to produce the greateft "^^^'^ •
pfFe£t in a given time ; but if time be not regard-
ed, then the greater the charge, fo as to leave
any velocity, the greater the eifedt, as appears by
Ithe 8th column. So that it appears, that an over-
|hot wheel, if it be made immenfely capacious,
and to move very flow, may produce effedts in
the ratio of 9,9 to lo of the power.

Scale of Experiments, Krt. 27.

THE following fcale of adtual experiments
were made to prove whether the refiftance occu-
pies its proportion of the velocity, in order that I
might judge whether the foregoing fcale was foun-
ded on true principles ; the experiments were not
very accurately performed, but often repeated,
and proved always nearly the fame. See plate H,
fig. 18.

SCALE

EXPERIMENTS.

r '^

■n

p? 2.

g crs)

3 • [3-

n 1 -

"-d

rr , 5

1 0

<-r

p .

O-

0 ■

fT'

J_^,

n ^

o
e

D-.

D-
»

P
3
0

7
6

4
3,5

2
I
0

I—* ft3

cw'5'

n
»

-■ o
tr ET

S.cr

»2.

fB 3
'^(^
3•^^

« cr

o «
fti o

&»

p ^
3 P
n rr

=^- P w-

; <-♦ o rj)

^ 3 "^

^ c C

O 3 rt

"B &3

rt 5 o

kCTQ <
>-hj c

r+ ^ O

3 (T! n>

15,5
12

o
2x6
2,6X5

3,33x4
4X3'5

4,44X3
6,5 6x2

6 6,6x1

5 ■»

Oj 3
rr. p^
33

S 3
P £.

2 "t;
o^ 3

1=1 rt

a o
O n

^ a'

:i o

o
12

13^32

13,32

I 2

6,6

'-a

3* 3
»- 3
O D-'

= f

•^3

rt 3

£J 3

l8,2

23,31
28

31,08

42
46,2

3
n

10
10
10
10
10
10
lO

8,5

5y
4,2

1,4

i ^^

n 2.^
^'P; 3

So'?;'

< g rt

rt 5 o

^ C

>-• p

3 !^
CW «

S-o

i^
2. f*

a' n

5 2.

rt rt
O^

33,8

44,35
max.newtheo.

59,14

72 maximum.

-^2

Chap, XI. MECHANICS. 59

By this fcale it appears, that when the power Art. 37.
P falls freely without any load, it defcends 40 feet
in five equal parts of time, but, when charged
with3,5lbs.=:4 P, which was 7lbs.it then took up 10
of thofe parts of time to defcend the fame diftance ;
which feems to fhew, that the charge occupies its
proportional part of the whole velocity, which
w^as wanted to be known, and the maximum ap-
pear as in the lafl fcale.* It alfo fhews, that the
effect is not as the weight multiplied into the
fquare of its afcending velocity, this being the
meafure of the effed that would be produced by
jthe ftroke on a non-elaftic body.
i This experiment partly confirmed me in what
ll have called the New Theory ; but ftill doubt-
iing, and after I had formed the foregoing tables,
I called on the late ingenius and worthy friend,
iWilliam Waring, teacher in the Friends* Acade-
jmy, Philadelphia, for his affiftancc. He told me
Jhe had difcovered the error in the old theory,
[and corrected it in a paper which he had laid be-
jfore the Philofophical Society of Philadelphia,
[wherein he had fhewn that the velocity of the
'underlhot water-wheel, to produce a maximum
effedt, mufl be juft one half the velocity of the
jwater.

JVilliam JVarmg''s Theory, Art. 38.

I The following are extra6ls from the above wniiamwar-
jtnentioned paper, publifhed in the third volume ing's theory.
•of the Tranfaftions of the American Philofophical
jSociety, held at Philadelphia, p. 144.

After his learned and modeft introdudlion, in
which he fliews the neceffity of corredling fo great
in error as the old theory, he begins with thefe
svords, viz.

* Since writing the above, I have feen At^vood's Treatife on Motion,
vherein he gives a fet of accurate experiments, to prove fbeyond doubt)
hat the conclufion I have drawn is right, viz. That the charge occupies
ts proportional part of the whole velocity. See the American Encyclopae-
lia, Vol. X. p. 786.

Art. 38.

MECHANICS.

Chap, XI ^

Difinition.

Demonftra-
tion.

** But, to come to the point, I would juft pre-
mife thefe

DEFINITIONS,

If a ftream of water impinge againft a wheel ia
motion, there are three different velocities to be
confidered appertaining thereto, viz.

Firfl, The abfolute velocity of the water.

Second, The abfolute velocity of the wheel.

Third, The relative velocity of the water t(
that of the wheel ; /. e. the difference of the ab-sl
folute velocities, or the velocity with which the
water overtakes or flrikes the wheel.

Now the miftake confifts in fuppoiing the mo-
mentum, or force of the water againfl: the wheel,
to be in the duplicate r^tio of the relative veloci-
ty ; Whereas J

p a o P.

The force of an invariable ftream, impinging
againft a mill- Wheel in motion, is in the limple
proportion of the relative velocity.

For, if the relative velocity of a fluid againft a,
lingle plain, be varied, either by the motion of
the plain, or of the fluid from a given aperture,
or both, then the number of particles afting on
the plain, in a given time, and likewife the mo-
mentum of each particle being refpe£lively as the
relative velocity, the force, on both thefe ac-
counts, muft be in the duplicate ratio of the rela-
tive velocity, agreeable to the common theory,
with refped to this fingle plain ; but the number
of thefe plains, or parts of the wheel, adled on in
a given time, will be as the velocity of the wheel,
or inverfely as the relative velocity ; therefore
the moving force of the wheel muft be as the fim-
ple ratio of the relative velocity Q^E. D.

'^imp. XL MECHANICS. ^I

t- Gr the propofition is manifeft from this confi- Art. 5«.
iieration, that while the ftrcam is invariable,
jvvhatever be the velocity of the wheel, the fame
[lumber of particles, or quantity of the fluid, mufl
flrike it fomewhere or other in a. given time ; con-
fequently, the variation of th'C force is only on
account of the varied impingent velocity of the
ilame body, occaiioned by a change of motion m.
[the wheel ; th^t js, the momentum is as the rela-
tive velocity,

j Now this true principle, fubllituted for the er^
roneous one in ufe, will bring the theory to agree
f-cmarkably with the notable experiments of the
Ingenius Smeaton, publifhed in the Philofbphical
pTranfa^tions of the lloyal Society of London, for
the year J 751, vol. LI; for which the honorary
annual medal was adjudged by the fociety, and
Iprefented to the author by their prelident.
I An inflance or tv/o of the importance of this
borreftion, may be adduced, as follows :

PROP. II.

i The velocity of a wheel, moved by the impaj^:
of a ftream, mud be half the velocity of the fluid,
to produce the greateft effeft poffiblc.

/'V = the velocity, M = the momentum, of the

-| fluid.

(^v = the velocit)^, ?:;= the power, of the wheel.

Then V — v = their relative velocity, by defini-^
tion qd.

And, as V:V— v:;M;— xV— v == P, (Prop. I)

M — ^

whichxvzrP, v=— -xVv — v^=a maximum; hence

Vv — v^=:a maximum and its flia£lion (v being a
variable quantity=:Vv — 2vv=o ; therefore— 4V ;
that is, the velocity of the wheel = half that of
the fluid, at the place of impad-, when theeffea: is
.a maximum, Q^ E, D,

Art. 38.

MECHANICS.

C/iap. Xh

Part omitted.

Art. 39.

Further ex-
traftsfromW.
Waring's pub-
lication CQn-
ceming his
«ew theory.

The effedl of
underfliot
wheels as the
fquares of the
velocities of
the water.

The ufual theory gives v=7V, where the er-
ror is not lefs than one fixth of the true velo-
city !"

wm. waring.

Philadelphia, 7 th)
9th mo. 1790.)

Note, I omit quoting prop. Ill, as it is in alge-
bra, and refers to a figure, becaale i am not writ-
ing fo particularly to men of fcience, as to practi-
cal Mechanics,

— ■«®>=^<s>>-. —

Extract from a further paper, read in the phi^
lofophical fociety, April 5th, 1793.

" Since the philofophical fociety were pleafed to!
favour my crude obfervations on the theory of
mills, with a publication in their tranfadions, I
am apprehenlive fome part thereof may be mifap-
plied, it being therein demonllrated, that ' the
force of an invariable ftream, impinging againfb a
mill-wheel in motion, is in the fimple direct ratio
of the relative velocity.' Some may fuppofe,
that the eifeft produced, fhould be in the fame
proportion, and either fall into an error, or find-
ing by experiment, the effedt to be as the fquare
of the velocity, conclude the new theory to be not
well founded ; I therefore wilh there had been a
little added, to prevent fuch mifapplication, be-
fore the fociety had been troubled with the read-
ing of my paper on that fubjedl : perhaps fome-
thing like the following.

The maximum eifeCt of an underfhot wheel,
produced by a given quantity of water, in a giv-
en time, is in the duplicate ratio, of the velocity
of the water ; for the effect mull be as the impe-
tus adting on the wheel, multiplied into the ve-
locity thereof: but this impetus is demonllrated
to be limply as the relative velocity, prop. I.

Zhap, XL MECHANICS. 6%

incl the velocity of the wheel, producin'g a max- Art. 3^.
mum, beiRg half of the water by prop. II. is
[ikewife as the velocity of the water ; hence the
power ading on the wheel, multiplied into
the velocity of the wheel, or the eifed: produc-
ed, muft be in the duplicate ratio of the velocity
Df the water. (^ E. D.

CoROL. Hence the effedof a given quantity of
water, in a given time, will be as the height of
the head, becaufe this height is as the iquare
af the velocity. This alfo agrees with experi-
ment.

If the force, acting on the wheel, were in
fluplicate ratio of the water's velocity, as ufual-
ly afTerted, then the effed would be as the cube
thereof, when the quantity of water and time arc
^iven, which is contrary to the refult of experi-
Bient."

Waring^ s Theory doubted, * 1^

From the time I firfl called on William Waring, -wr. warmg's
intil I read his publication on the fubjeft (after theory douUt-
lis death) I had refted partly fatisfied, with the
lew theory, as I have called it, with refpeft to
he velocity of the wheel, at leafl ; but finding
ihat he had not determined the charge, as well as
he velocity, by which we might have compared
he ratio of the pov/er and the effed produced, and jtnotagree-
hat he had affigned reafons fomewhat different for ing fuUy witk
i he error ; and having found the motion to be rather P^^*^^"'
00 flow to agree with practice, I began to fufpeft
he whole, and refumed the fearch for a true theo-
y, thinking that perhaps no perfon had ever yet
itinfidered every thing that affects the calcala-
io.n, I therefore premifed the following

«i^ M E e H A N i c i^r. Chap, m

Art. ^

POSTULATES.

I. A given quantity of perfect elaftie 6r folici

Rtatter, impinging on a fixed obftacle, its effeC"*

tive force is as the fquares of its different velocii

ties, although its inftant force may be as its veioci'.

ties fimply, by annotation, art. 8.*

; 2.. Ah equal quantity of elaftic matter, imping-'

V ing on a fixt obftacle with a double velocity, pro*

; ■ duces a quadruple effect, art. 8 ; i.e. their effects

are as the fquares of their velocities. Confc-

quently,

3. A double quantity of faid matter, impinging
with a Rouble velocity, produces an octuble effect,
or their eifects are as the cubes of their velocities,
art, 47 Sc 6y,

4. If the impiaging matter be non-elaftic, fuck
as fluids, then the inftant force will be but half
in each, cafe, but the ratio will be the fame in each
cafe.

5. A double velocity, through a given aper-
I ture, gives a double quantity to ftrike the obfta-
cle or wheel, therefore the effects, by poftulate

^ 3, will be as the cubes of the velocity. See art.

47-

6. But a double relative velocity cannot inereafe

the quantity that is to act on the wheel, there-
fore the effect can only be as the fquare of the ve-*
locity, by poftulate a.

7. Although the inftant force and effects of
ftriking fluids, on fixt obftacles, are only as their,
fimple velocities, yet tbeir effects, on moving (

i wheels, are as the iquares of their velocities ; be-

caufe, I, a double ftriking velocity gives a double!
inftant force, which bears a double load on the !
wheel; and 2, a double velocity moves the load

* Becaiife tlie diftance it will recede after the ftroke through any refiliins
medium, will be as the fquares of its impingirj vejociti&s.

Chap, XT. MECHANICS. 65

a double diftance in an equal time, and a double Art. 40.
load moved a double diftancc, is a quadruple ef-

fea.

— ■<^c<^<s»- —

Search for a true Theory^ commenced on a new Plan, Art. 41.

I T appears, that we have applied wrong prin-
ciples in our fearch after a true theory of the max-
imum velocity and load of underfhot water-wheels,
or other engines moved by a conflant power, that
Idoes not increafe or decreafe in quantity on the
bngine, as on an overfliot water-wheel, as the ve-
locity varies.

I Let us fuppofe water to ilfue from under a head
pf 16 feet, on an underfhot w^ater-wheel ; then, if
jthe wheel moves freely with the water, its velo-
city will be 32,4 feet per fecond, but will bear
no load.

L Again, fuppofe we load it. To as to reduce its
otion to be equal the velocity of water fpouting
'from under 15 feet ; it appears evident that the
load will then be juft equal to that i foot of the head,
!the velocity of which is checked ; and this load
multiplied into the velocity of the wheel, viz.
131,34X1 — 31,34 for the effedl.
! This appears to be the true principle, from
which we mufi: feek the maximum velocity and
load, for fuch engines as are moved by one conflant
ipower ; and on this principle I have calcaiated
;the following fcalc.

A SCALE FOR DETERMINING fUE TRUE MAXIMUM
VELOCITY AND LOAD
For undershot WHEELS,

<• a.

Veloc
feco

he a

3aB

loci
edb

» S —

3^ 0 -1
ft "^

3 !» Cf=! (T>

0 S. 0
P ft 0

3'
p

2 3

o" ft ,« -<

• ^. 0 ^

fO ft ro
n P ''^■

ft cr
c a-

ft n> ">

5=r a. ft

' 5^ P

Q 1 i-r

. ' ' 1

feet.

•

32.4

31^34

I ,

31' '34

30^2

60,4

28,

112

25.54

153,24

22,8^

182,4

21,43

192,87

19, &4

198,4

5,66

i9>27

io»33 .

1 98^95

5^33

18,71

ro , 66

199,44

18,

198

16 ,2

194,4

172

11,4

159,6

8,1

120,

Maximum motion
load.

^-^'

Zhap. XL MECHANICS. ^^

i In this fcale, let us fiippofe the aperture of the Art. 41.
|j:ate to be a fquare foot ; t-hen the greatefl load
l:hat will balance the head, will be 16 cubic feet
)f water, and the different loads will be lliewn in
ubic feet of water.

And then it appears, by this fcale, that v/hcn
:he wheel is loaded with ic, 66 cubic feet of wa-
ter, jufl 2-3 of the greateft load, its velocity will be
18.71 feet per fecond, juft ,577 parts of the velo-
city of the water, and the clfeft produced is at a
iTiaxi:riirni, or the greateft poffible, viz. 199,44.

To make this more plain, let us fuppofe A B,
plate II, fig. 19, to be a fall of water 16 feet. Fig. 19.
which we wifh to apply to produce the greateft
Icffed poilible, by hoifting w^ater on its fide dppo-
fite to the power applied ; firfi, on the underfliot
principle, where the v/ater a6ls by its impulfe on-
ly. Now let us fuppofe the water to ilrike the
[wheel at I, then, if we let the wheel move free-
lly without any load, it wilj move with the velo-
city of the water, viz. 32,4 feet per fecond, but
will produce no cffe6t, if the water iifue at C ; al-
though there be 32,4 cubic feet of water expend-
ed, under 16 feet perpendicular defcent. Let the
v/eight of a cubic foot of water be reprefented by
unity or i, for eafe in counting; then 32,4,Xi6
will iliew the pov/cr expended, per fecond, viz.
518,4 ; and the water it hoifls multiplied into its
perpendicular afcent, or height hoiiled, v/ill fnew
the effedi. Then, in order to obtain efi'eil from
the power, v/e load the wheel; the fimpleft way
of doing which, is, to caufe the tube of vv'aterC D
to ad on the back of the bucket at I ; then, if CD
be equal to AB, the wheel will be held in equili-
brio ; this is the greateft load, and the whole of the
fail AB is balanced, and no part left to give the
wheel velocity ; therefore the effc<ft=:o. But if
v\^e make CD=i2 feet of A B, then from 4 to
A=4 feet, is left unbalanced, to give velocity to
the wiicel, which is now loaded with 12 feet, and

68 MECHANICS. Chap, XL

Art. 41. exaftly balanced by 12 on the other fide, and per- ,

feftJy free to move either way by the leafl; force-
applied : Therefore it is evident, that the whole'
prejGTure or force of 4 feet of A B will ad: to give
velocity to the wheel, and, as there is no refift-
ance to oppofe the preffure of thefe 4 feet, the
velocity will be the fame that water will fpout
from under 4 feet head, viz. 16,2 feet per fecond,
which is fliewn by the horizontal line 4=16,2,,
and the perpendicular line 12=12 reprelents the*!
load of the wheel ; the reftangle or produ6l of thefei
two lines, form a parallelogram, the area of which;
is a true reprefentation of the effieft, viz. the load;
12 multiplied into 16,2 the diftance it moves pef;
fecond=i 94,4, the effecb. In like manner v/e may;
try the eifeft of different loads ; the lefs the load^j
the greater will be the velocity. The horizontal
lines all {hew the velocity of the wheel, produced
by the refpeftive heads left unbalanced, and the per-
pendicular lines {h^w the load on the wheel : and
we find, that when the load is io,66=|- 16, the
load at equilibrio, the velocity of the wheel will
be 18,71 feet per fecond ; which is -l^a parts, or
a little lefs than 6 tenths, or 4- the velocity of
P7wer&ndef- the Water, and the eifed: is 199,44, themaximiun
•--as3t<)2 (3p greateft pofiible : and if the aperture of the

on overihot >, ^ , . -niO

V. heels. gate be i root, the quantity will be 10,71 cubic

feet per fecond. The power being 18,71 cubic
feet expended per fecond, multiplied by 16 feet
the perpendicular defcent, produces 299,36, and
the ratio of the power and efiecl being i o to (y~^ or
as 3 : 2 ; but this is fuppofing none of the force
loft by non-elafticity.

This may appear plainer, if we fuppofe the v.'a-
ter to defcend the tube A B, and, by its prcirnre,
to raife the v/ater in the tnbe C D ; now it is evi-
dent, that if we raife the v/atcr to D, v.-e liave'
• no velocity, therefore efted — o. Then agsin, if
we open the gate at C, we have 32,4 feet per fe-
cond v^elocity, but becaufe w-e do not hcifz tiie

Chap. XL M E C H A N I C S.

water any diftance, effect :=o. Therefore the Art. 41-
maximum is fomewhcre between C and D. Then
fuppofe we open gates of i foot area, at different
heights, the velocity will fliew the quantity of
cubic feet raifed ; which multiplied by the per-
pendicular height of the gate from C, or height
raifed, gives the effect as before, and the maxi-
mum as before. But here we muft confider, that
in both thefe cafes, the water acts as a perfect
definite quantity, which will produce effects equal
to elaftic bodies, or equal to its gravity (fee art.
/^9) which is impracticable in practice : Whereas
when it acts by percuffion only, it communicates
onh^ half of its original force, on account of its
non-elafticity,theotherhalf beingfpentinfplalhing
about (fee art. 8) ; therefore the true effect will
be^^V? (^ little more than 1-3) of the moving pow-
er ; becaufe nearly 1-3 is loft to obtain velocity,
and half of the remaining 2-3 is loft by non-elafti-
city. Thefe are the realons, why the effects pro-
duced by an under&ot wheel is only half of that
produced by an overfhot v/heei, the perpendicu-
lar defcent and quantity of v/ater being equal.
And this agrees wnth Smeaton's experiments (fee
art. 68) ; but if we fuppofe the velocity of the
wheel to be 1-3 that of the water=io,8, and the
load to be 4-9 or 1 6, the greateft load at equilibrio ;
which is=7,i 1 1, as by old theory, then the effect
will be 1 0,8X4 •(;) of 16=76,79 for the effect,
v/hich is quite too little, the moving pov/er be- '
iiig 32,4 cubic feet of u^ater, multiplied by 16
feet dercent=5i 8,4, the effect by this tlieory be-
ing lefs than .^Vo- of the povv^er, about half equal
to the effect by experiment, v»'^hich effect is fet
on the outiide of the dotted circle in the iig. ( 1 9.)
The dotted lines join the corner of the parallelo-
grams, formed by the lines tliat reprefent the
loads and velocities, in eacii experiment or lup-
poiition, the areas of which truly reprefent the
effect, and the dotted line Aa d x, meeting the

7° MECHANICS. Chap, XI,

Art. 4i. perpendicular line xE in the point x, forming
tiie parallelogram ABCx, truly reprefents the
power = 5 18 ,4.

Again, if we fuppofe the wheel to move with
half the velocity of the water, \iz. 16,2 feet per
lecond, and be loaded with half the greateft load
= 8, according to Waring'.s theory, then the ef-
fect will be 1652x8 = 129,6 for the effect, about
-rVo- of the pov/er, which is ftiil lefs than by ex-
periment. All this feems to confirm the maxi-
mum brouglit out on the new principles.

But, if we luppofe according to the nev.^ prin-
ciple, that, when the wheel moves with the ve-
locity of 16-2 feet perfecond, which is the velo-
f;ity of a 4 feet head, that jt vvill then bear as a
load the remaining. 12 feet^, then the effect vv-ill
be 16,2X12=194,4, which nearh/ agrees v/ith
praftice : but as moil mills in pradtice move faf-
ter, rather than flower, than what I call the true
maximum, fliew^s it to be nearefc the truth, the
true maximum velocity being ,577 of the veloci-
ty of the water, and the mills in pradlice moving
with 2-3, and generally quicker.'*

* The reafon why the wheel beS|i,-5 fo great a load at a maximum, ap-
pears to be as ibllo-ws, viz.

A 16 feet head of water over a gate of i foot, iiTues 32,4 cubic feet of
'vater in a fecor.d, to llrike the wheel in the fame time, that a heavy Ijocly
will take up in falling through the height of the head. Nov.^ if 16 cubic
feet of elaftic matter, was to fall 16 feet, and ftrike an elallic plain, it
would rife hy the force of the Itroke, to the height from whence it fell ;
or, in other words, it will have force fumcient, to bear a load of 16 cu-
bic feet.

Again, if 32 cubic feet of non-ekftic matter, moving with the fame ve-
locity, (with which the 16 feet of elaftic matter ftruck the plain) flrike a wheel
ia the lame time, although it communicate only half the force, that gave
it inotion ; yet, becaufe there is a double quantity flriking in tiie farr.e
time, the eifefts will be eqnai, that is, it will bear a load of 16 cubic feet,
or the whole column to hold it in equilibrio.

Again, to check the whole velocity, requires the whole column, that
produces the velocity, confeqiiently, to check any partoftlie velocity,
will require fuch apart of the column that pro luces the part checked;
and we find by art. 41, that, to check the velocity of the wheel, to be
,577 of the velocity of the v.^ater, it requires 2-3 of the whole column,
and this is t'-ie maximum load. V/hen the velocity of the Avheel, is multi-
plied by 2-3 of the column, it produces the etfecl:, which will be to the
pov/er, as 38 to lOo ; or as 3,8 to 10, fomewhat more than 1-3, and the
friffion and refiiiance of the air may reduce it to 1-3.

\phap: XI, MECHANICS. 71

I This. Tcale alfo eftablifhes a true maximum Art. 41.

charge for an overfliot wheel, when the cafe is

fuch, that the power or quantity of water on the Maximum

,1 • t \ r 1^1 1 charge of

[wheel at once, is always the lame, even although overfhot
Ithe velocity vary, which would be the cafe, if wheels, fup-

I J J ^ ' DOllllP' the

the buckets were kept always full : for, fuppofe fame quantity
Ithe water to be fhot into the wheel at a, and by tobe always

.^ , , , ^ . ^, mthebwek-

fits gravity to raiie the whole water again on the ets.
bppolite fide ; then, as foon' as the water riles
\i\ the wheel to d, it is evident that the wheel
ivillftop, and eife£lr=o ; therefore v/e muft let the
water out of the wheel, before it rifes to
I, which will be in cifed to loofe part of the
bower to obtain velocity. If the buckets both
[lefcending and afcending, carry a column of wa-
er I foot iquare, then the velocity of the wheel
ill fliew the quantity hoifted as before, which,
kiultiplied by the perpendicular afcent, lliews the
|ffe£t, and the quantity expended, multiplied by
:he perpendicular defcent (hews the power ; and
ve find, that when the wheel is loaded with 2-3
»f the power, the eftecl will be at a maximum,
. e, the whole of the water is hoifted, 2-3 of its
yhale defcent, or 2-3 of the w^ater the whole of
jhe defcent, therefore the ratio of the power to
:he effc(ft is as 3 to 2, double to the effeft of an
jinderfhot wheel : but this is, fuppoling the quan-
jity in the buckets to be always the fame ; w^hcre-
'kS, in overlbot wheels, the quantity in the buck-
ets is univerfally as the velocity of the wheel,,
1. e. the flower the motion of the wheel, the
I^Tcater the quantity in the buckets, and the
kreater the velocity the leis the quantity : but,
gain, as we are obliged to let the overfhot wheel
iiove with a conliderable velocity, in order to
'ibtain a Heady, rcguh>' motion to the mill, we
vill find this charge to be always nearly right ;
ience I deduce the following theory.

72 MECHANICS. Chap, XL

Art. 41. THEORY.

A true theory This fcale fcems to have ftiewn,
deduced. j^ That when an underfliot mill moves with

^^yq or nearly ,6 of the velocity of the water,
it will then bear a charge, equal to 2-3 of the load^
that w411 hold the wheel in equilibrio, and then
the effeft will be at a maximum. The ratio of
the power to the efFed; will be as 3 to i, nearly.

2. That, when an overfliot wheel is charged
with 2-3 of the weight of the water afting upon
the wheel, then the effedl will be at a maximum,
/. e. the greateft effect, that can be produced by
faid'power in a given time, and the ratio of the
power to the efFeft will be as 3 to 2, nearly.

3. That 1-3 of the power is neceiTarily loll to
obtain velocity, or to overcome the vifiaertia of
the matter, and this will hold true with all ma-
chinery that requires velocity as well as povv^er.
This I believe to be the true theory of water-
mills, for the following reafons, viz.

1. The theory is deduced from original reafon-
ing, without depending much on calculation.

2. It agrees better than any other theory,
with the ingenious Smeaton's experiments.

3. It agrees beft with real practice, from the
bcft of my information.

Yet I do not wifli any perfon to receive it im-
plicitly, without firft informing himfelf, whether
it be well founded, and agrees with practice:
for this reafon I have quoted faid Smeaton's ex- j
periments at full length, in this work, that th^||
reader may compare them M^ith the theory. ;«||

Theorem for finding the Ma.xhium Charge for uncler-
^ JJiot JVheels.

As the fquare of the velocity of the water or
Vv^heel empty, is to the height of the head,

Chap, XL MECHANICS. 73

or prefTure, which produced that velocity, fo is Art. 42.
the fquare of the velocity of the wheel, to the
head, prefTure, or force, which will produce
that velocity ; and this prcffure, deduded from
the v/hole prefTure or force, v/ill leave the load
moved by the wheel, on its periphery or verge,
which load, multiplied by the velocity of the
wheel, fhews the efrect.

P Pc O B L E M.

Let ¥=-32,4, the velocity of the water or wheel,
P=i6, the prefTure, force or load, at equili-

brio,
v=:the velocity of the wheel, fuppofed to be

16,2 feet per fecond,
p=the prefTure, force or head, to produce faid

velocity,
Izrthe load on the wheel.
Then, to find 1, the load, we muft firft find p ;
Then, by

Theorem VV:P::vv:p,
And P~p=l

VVprrvvP '

vvP

P = = 4

1:=P — prr I 2, the load.

"VVhich, in words at length, is. The fquare of
the velocity of the wheel, multiplied by the
whole force, prefTure, or head of the water, and
divided by the fquare of the velocity of the wa-
ter, quotes the prefTure, force or head of water,
that is left unbalanced by the load, to produce the
velocity of the wheel, which prefTure, force or
head, fubtrafted from tiie whole prefTure, force
or head, leaves the load that is on the wheel.

MECHANIC S. Chap, XL

Theorejn for finding the Velocity of the TVheeU ivhen
we have the Velocity of the IVaier^ Load at Equi-
librio, and Load on the PP' heel given.

As the fquare root of the whole preflure, force
or load at equilibrioj is to the velocity of the
water, fo is the fquare root of the difference, be-
tween the load on the wheel, and the load at
equilibrio, to the velocity of the wheel.

P R O B L E M.

Let V=ve]ocity of the water=32,4,

PrrprefTurc, force, head, or load at equili-'

brio = ]6,
l = the load on the wheel, fuppofe 12,
v = veiocity of the wheel,

Thenbythe__ '_

Theorem ^P:V::^P— ]:v
And /^PXv-y/^F— 1

A^p ' (of the wheel.

That is, in words at length, the velocity of the
w^ater 32,4, multiplied by the fquare root of the
difference, between the load on the wheel, 12,
and the load at equilibrio 16=2=64,8, divided by
the fquare root of the load at equilibrio, quotes
16,2, the velocity of the wheel.

Now, if we feek for the maximum', by either
of thefe theorems, it v/ill be found as ii) the fcale,
fig. 19.

Perhaps here may now appear the true caufe
of the error of the old theory, art. 35, by fup-
poiing the load on the wheel, to be as the fquare
of the relative velocity, of the water and wheel.

And of the error of what I have called the new
theory, by fuppofing the load to be in the fimple

I Chap. XI. MECHANICS. j^

ratio of the relative or ftriking velocity of the Art. 42.
water, art. 38 ; whereas it is to be found by nei-
ther of theie proportions.

Neither the old nor new theories agree with
praiiHce ; tiierefore we may fufped: they are
founded on error.

But if, what I call the true theory, flioiild con-
tinue to agree with pratlice, the praftitloner
need not care on what it is founded.

Of tJie Maxhmun velocity for Over/hot TVheels^ or Art, 43.
thofe that are moued by the vjtight of the Wa-
ter,

BEFORE I difmifs the fubjedl of maximums,
I J think it befl to conlider, whether this dodlrine
will apply to the motion of the overfhct wheels.
It feems to be the general opinion of thofe, who
I conhder the matter, that it will not ; but, that
I the flower the wheel moves, provided it be ca-
pacious enough to hold all the water, without
lofing any until it be delivered at 'the bottom of
;the wheel, the greater will be the effect, v/hich
I appears to be the cafe in theory (fee art. 36) ; but
hovv^ far this theory will hold good in praclicc, is
to be confidered. Having met with the ingeni-
ous James Smeaton's experiments, where he
Ihews, that, wiien the circumference of his lit-
jtle wheel, of 24 inches diameter, (head 6 inches)
moved with about 3,1 feet per fecond (although
the greatcft effeii; was diminiflied about -^ of the
I whole) he obtained the bell eifeft, with a fteady,
regular motion. Hence he concludes about 3
feet to te the beft velocity for the circumference
of oveifh^t mills. See art. 68. I undertook to
compare this theory of his, with the beft mills

7^ MECHANICS. Chap, XI,

Art. 43- in practice, and, finding that thofe of about 17

feet diameter, generally moved about 9 feet per
oJInioTofthe ^e^o'id. being treble the velocity alfigned by Smea-
proper veioci- ton, I began to doubt the theory, which led me
cumferenc?"^" to inquire into the principle, that moves an over-
of overfliot fhot wheel, and this I found to be a body defcend-
rot'atr'ee''' ^"^.^7 its gravity, and fubjeft to all the laws of
withpradice. falling bodies, (art. 9) or of bodies defccnding in-
Theprincipie cliued plains, and curved furfaces (art. 10, 11,)
of the power the uiotion being equably accelerated in the whole

that moves r- • i r • i • i • i c

overfhot or its dcicent, its velocity being as the Iquare root

wheels is of the diflance defcended through, and that the

ingbody. diameter of the v/licel was the diflance the water

Their veioei- <^efcended through. From thence I concluded,

ties vary, and that the vclocity of the circumfcrence of the

fquar'Troot^of ovcrfiiot whecls, was, as the fquare root of their

their diame- diameters, and of the diflance the water has to

^"' dcfcend, if it be a breafl or pitch-back wheel :

then, taking Smeaton's experiments, with his

w^heel of 2 feet diameter, for a foundation, I

fay, As the fquare root of the diameter of Smea-

ton's wheel, is to its maximum velocity, fo is the

fquare root of the diameter of any other wheel,

to its maximum velocity. Upon thefe principles

This rule I have calculated the following table ; and, hav-

foundtoagree ing Compared it \\dth at leafl 50 mills in pracftice,

withpraftice. ^^^^^^ jt to agree fo nearly with ail the befl con-

flru6ted ones, that I have reafon to believe it is

founded on true principles.

Their veioci- If au overfhot v/hcel moves freely v/ithout re-

tieswiUbea {jjlance, it will acquire a mean velocity, between

mean be- •'■' - 7 ^ ^ j •>

tween the that of the v/atcr coming on the wheel, and t^e
leaitand p-reatcfl veiocitv it v/ould acquire, by falling free-
body falling ij through its wliolc defceut : therefore this
d^^?^"e^t.!! ^"^^ mean velocity will be greater, than the velocity
of the water coming on the wheel ; confequent-
ly the backs of the buckets v/ili overtake the wa-
ter, and drive a great part of it out of the wheel.
But, the velocity of the water being accelerated
hy its gravity, overtakes the wheel, perhaps half

:hap. XL MECHANICS. yy

Way down, and preffes on the buckets, until it ^rt. 43.
eaves the wlieel : therefore the water prefTes ,„

I 1 T 1 ^ • 1 I V • Water prefTes

iiarder upon the buckets in the lower, than m harder on the
the uDper quarter of the wheel. Hence appears ^^^^^^t'*^"

, ■'r»i r 1 ini- upper quarter

the realon why lome wheels cait their water, of the wheie.
ivhich is always the cafe, when the head is not
aliicient to give it velocity enough to enter the
puckets. But this depends alfo much on the po-
rtion of the buckets, and diredtion of the .fliute
Into them. It, however, appears evident that
^he head of water above the wheel, Ihould
pe nicely adjufted, to fuit the velocity of the
kheci. Here v/e may confider, that the head
Ibove the wheel adts by perculTion, or on the fame
[principles with the underlhot wheel, and, as we
lave fhewn (art. 41) that the underfliot wheel
hould move with nearly 2-3 of the velocity of the
Abater, it appears, that we Ihould allow a head
pver the wheel, that will give fuch velocity to
^he water, as will be to that of the wheel as 3
f:o2. Thus the whole defcent of the water of a '^'

mill-feat Ihould be nicely divided, between head The whole
md fail, to fuit each other, in order to obtain ^efcentmuft
:he belt eiiecb, and a fleady-moving mill. Firft videdbe-
iind the velocity that the wheel will move with, andl^//^^'^
3y the weight of the water, for any diameter
y^ou may fuppofe you will take for the wheel,
md divide faid velocity into two parts ; ihen
;ry if your head is fuch, as will caufe the water
:o come on with a velocity of 3 fuch parts, mak-
ng due allowances for the fridion of the water,
iccording to the aperture. See art. 55. Then,
f the buckets and direction of the fhute be right,
:he wheel will receive the water vv^ell, and move
;o the bed advantage, keeping a fceady, regular
notion when at work, loaded or charged witli a
'efiflance equal to 2-3 of its power, (art. 41. 42.)

A TABLE OF VELOCITIES of the CIRCUMFERENCE
Of undershot WHEELS,

Suitable to their Diameters, or rather to the Fall, after the Water ftrikes
■ the Wheel ; ,and of the head of Water above the Wheel, fuitable to faid
"Velocities, alfo of the Number of Revolutions the Wheel will Per-
form in a Minute, when rightly charged.

M- O

ss o

M^ O

S>5

^ o

P H^

CL „.

1-1- o

^n'

n H

»>

o m

0 a

3.1

3.78

4,38

4,88

5.3^

5, B

6,19

<^>57

6,92

7; 24

7>57

7,86

8,19

8,47

8,76

9;28

9> 5

9.78

10,

10,28

10, 5

ID, 7

2-^

10,95

II, 16

11,36

11,54

11,78

11,99

. H

r^ r^ 9-
p- 0 g
ft 0-

•13 ?
•^ 0

3: ^.0

8 tf^S"

f»

2.S

0 "> ^

ft n: >— '

C 0

-"^1

C 3 (t

ft e

S'Sp

See

fn w, 0,

*+) S.' °^

fv "■ 0
ft ^ <

0 rt- ,-►

p
ft

rt p fB

*^ rD

►^

■ ^ 2

r-f

J3 t_^ ^

'o 5

rr\

CL ft

ft 5

•n 0 ^

?^?1

So s

f^ 2

• i^ >—

1,41

1,51

14,3

1,64

1,74

'3'

1,84

1,94

12,6

2,2

2,17

2,47

11,54

2,34

2,74

11,17

2,49

2,99

10,78

2,68

3,28

10,4 •

2, 8

3.5

10,1

3.8

9,8

3.13

4.03

9,54

3.34

4,34

9,3

3,49

1,05

4'54

9>i

3,76

I, I

4,86

8,9

3^84

i'i5

4,99

8,7

4,°7

1,2

s^-^i

8,5

4, 2

1,25

5,45

8,3

4,27

1-3

567

8,19

4,42

' .^'35

5^77

8,03

4,56

3,4 *

5>9^

7,93

4, 7

1,45

6,15

7,75

4, 9

1,5

6,4

7,63

=^-

'•r

\hap. XL MECHANICS. 7p

■THIS dodlrine of maximums is very interefi- Art. 44.
g, and is to be met with in many occurrences

irOUgh life. AppHcatioa

1 . It has been fhewn, that there is a maximum of maxl*-^^""*
ad and velocity for all engines, to fuit the pow- mums.

• and velocity of the moving power.

2. There is alfo a maximum fize, velocity and
ed for mill-flones, to fuit the power; and velo-
ty for rolling-fcreens, and bolting-reels, by
hich the greateft work can be done in the beft
anner, in a given time.

3. A maximum degree of perfeAion and clofe-
bfs, with which grain is to be manufaftured in-
) flour, fo as to yield the greateft profit by the
ill in a day or week, and this maximum is con-
nually changing with the prices in the market,
\ that what would be the greateft profit at one
me, will fink money at another. See art. 113.

4. A maximum weight for mallets, axesj
bdges, Sec, according to the ftrength of thofe
lat ufe them.

A true attention to the principles of maxi-
mums, will prevent us from running into many
rrors.

<<?^ «<S=^ ^<p^ ^!5>^ t<5>> t<:?^ (.j;?^ ti^ «.^>5 1{5>> t<s?^ Vi?^ t<;>i v:^

CHAPTER Xil.

H 2^ D R A U L I C S.

—..^^^ —

UNDER the head of Hydraulics we fhall on^|
ly confider fuch parts of this fcicnce, as im^l
mediately relate to our purpofCj viz. fuch as niay^
lead to the better undcrflanding of the principles
and powers of water, afting on mill-wheels, and
conveying water to them.

Art. 45. Of Spouting Fluids,

SPOUTING Fluids obferve the followingi

laws :

1. Their velocities and powers, under equal
preffures, or equal perpendicular heights, andi
equal apertures, are equal in all cafes.*

2. Their velocities under different preffures or
perpendicular heights, are as the fquare roots of j
thole prelTures or heights ; and their perpendicu-

* It makes no difference whether the water ftands perpendicular above the '
aperture, or incliningly (fee plate III, fig. 22) providing the perpendicular j
height be the fame ; or whether the quantity be great or fmall, providing it '
be fufficient to keep up the fluid to the fame height. '

Chap, XII. H Y D K A U L I C S. 8l,

lar heights or prefTures, are as the fquares of their Art. 45-

velocities.*

I 3. Their quantities expended through equal
! apertures, in equal times, under equal prelTures, »

[are as their velocities (imply. t
I 4. Their preilures or heights being the fame,
[their effects are as their quantities expended.^
> ^. Their quantities expended being the fame,

their effedls are as their preilure, or height of

tjieir head direclly.jj

6. Their inftant forces v/ith equal apertures, are
as the fquares of their velocities, or as the height
of their heads directly.

7. Their efrefts are as their quantities, multi-
plied into the fquares of their velocities.^

* This law is fimilarto the 4th law of fallins bodies, their velocities be- Foundation of
ing as the fquare root of their fpaces pafTed through ; and by experiment it the rule for
is known, that water will fpout from under a 4 feet head 16, 2 feet per fe- finding the ve-
cond, and from under a 16 feet head, 32,4 feet per fecond, which is only locity of wa-
double to that of a 4 feet head, although there be a quadruple prciTure. ter iinder any
Therefore by this law we can find the velocity of water fpouting from un- head,
der any given head; for as the fquare root of 4 equal 2 is to 16,2 its veloci-
ty, fo is the fqaare root of 16 equal 4, to 32,4 its velocity. And again, as
16,2 fquared, is to 4 its head, fo is 32,4 fquared, to 16 its head ; by v/hich
ratio we can find the head that will produce any velocity.

t It is evident that a double velocity will vent a double quantity.

\ If the prefture be equal, the velocity muft be equal ; and it is evident,
that double quantity with equal velocity will produce a doable eiTefl.

II That is, if we fuppofe 16 cubic feet of water to iffue from under a 4
feet head in a fecond, and an equal quantity to ilfue in the fame time from
under 16 feet head, then their ehefts will be as 4 to 16. But we muft note,
that the aperture in the laft cafe muft be only half of that in the iirft, as the
velocity v/ill be double.

§ This is evident from this confideration, viz. that a quadruple impulfe
is required to produce a double velocity, by law 2iid, where the velocities
are as the fquare roots of their heads ; therefore tteir cfierts muft be as the
fquares of their velocities.

DEMONSTRATION.

LET A F, (plate III, fit^. 26) reprefent ahead of water 16 feet high, and ,

fuppofe it divided into 4 dih'eren': hcado cf 4 feet each, as B C D E ; then fup- J ' '
pyie v/e draw a gate of r foot fquare at each head fucceflively, always f.nking "' '
i the v/atcr in the head, fo that it will be but 4 fiet above tl.e centre of the
gtice in each cafe . '■

\ Now it is known that the velocity imder a 4 feet licad, is 16,2 feet per
fecond ; fay 16 feet to avoid fracftion~, which will iffue 16 cubic feet of wa-
I ter per fecond, and for fake of round numbers, let unity or i reprefent the
' quantity of a cubic foot of water i t'nen, by the ythl.iw the eiledl v/ill be as
} the quantity multiplied by the iljuae of the velocity; that is, 16 multipli-
ed by 16 is equal to 256, whicli multiplied by 16, the quantity, is equal to
4096, thecilecl of each 4 ft-et head ; and 4096 mviltiplied by 4 is equal to
i i63l.],for tiie fuin of efiefts, of all the 4 feet heads.

i U - ■

Art. 46.

Vig.. 2&.

Art. 47-

Theory tiiat
is eilabl^.fhed
coinpared
witd the efta-
blifhed laws.
And found to
aff.ee.

HYDRAULICS. Chap. XIIl

8. Therefore their eiFe£ls or powers with equal

Then as the velocity under a 16 feet head is 32,4 feet, /ay 32 to avoid
fraftions : the gate muftbe drawn to only half the lize, to vend the 16 cubic
feet of water per fecond as before, (becaufe the velocity is double) then, to
find the eifeft, 32 multiplied by 32, is equal to 1024 ; which muldpiied by
16 the quantity, gives the elFeft, 16384, equal the fum of all the 4 feet head ;
which agrees with praftice and experience, the beft teachers. But if their
effects were as their velocities fimply, then the efFeft of each 4 feet
head would be, 16 multiplied by 16, equal to 256 ; which, multiplied by 4,
is equal to io-24,for the fum o^the eJefts of all the 4 feet heads : and 16 mul-

tip.Ucd by 32 equal to 513, for the efieft of the 16 feet head, which is only
half of the eifeftof the lame head when divided into 4 parts; which is con-
trary to both experiment and reafon.

Again, let us luppo'e the body A of quantity 16, to be perfeftly elaftic, to
fall 16 feet and ftrike F, aperfeftelaftic plain, it will (by laws of falling bo-
dies^ ftrike with a velocity of 32 feet per fecond, and rife 16 feet to A again.
_ But if it fall only to B, 4 ft;et, it will ftrike with 16 feet per fecond, and
rife 4 feet to A again. Here the effeift of the 16 feet fall is 4 times the ehett
of the 4 feet fall, becaufe the body rifes 4 times the height-

But it v/e count the effeftive momentum of their ftrokes to be as their ve-
locities fimply, then '6 multiplied by 32 is equal to 512, the momentum of
the 16 feet fall ; and r6 multiplied by 16 is equal to 256 ; wnich, multiplied
by 4, is equal to 1024, for the fum of the tnomentums of the ftrokes of j6
feet divided into 4 equal falls, which is abfurd. But if we count their mo-
mentums to be as the fqnares of their velocities, the effects will be equal.

Again, it is evident that whatever impulfe or force is required to give a
body a velocity, the fame force or refiftance will be required to flop it;
therefore, if the impulfe be as the fquare of the velocity produced, the force'
or refiftance will be 25 the fquares of the velocity alfo. But the impulle is
as the fquares of the velocity produced, which is evident from this confde-
ration, Suppofe we place a light body at the gate B, of 4 feet head, and pref-
fed with 4 feet of water ; when the gate is draWn it will fly off with a veio-
cjty of r6 feet per fecond; andif we increaie the head to 16 feet, it will fly
oif with 32 feet per fecond. Then, as the fquares of 16 equal to 256 is to
the fquare of 32 equal to 1024, fo is 4 to 16. Q. E. D.

To compare this 7th law with the theory of uuderftiot mills, eftablifiied
art. 42, where it is fliewn that the power is to the etredf as 3 to i ; then,
by the 7th law, the quantity fliewn by the fcale, plate II, to be 32,4 multi-
plied by 1049,-6 the fquare of the velocity, which is equal to 3401,2124, the
eflea of the 16 feet head : tlien, for the eifecl of a 4 fieet head, with equal
aperture quantity, by fcale, 16,2 multiplied by 262,44, the velocity fquar-
ec|, is equal to 425, 1 528, the effeft of a 4 feet head ; here the ratio of the
ehecVs are as 8 to i .

Then, by the theory, which Ihews that an underfliot wheel will hoift 1-3
of the water that turns it, to the whole height from which it defcended, the
I 3 of 32,4 the quantity, be uig equal to 1^,8 multiplied by 16, perpendicu-
lar aiceut ; which is equal to 172,8, eiiect of a 16 feet head; and 1-3 of
] 6,2 quantity, which U equal to 5,4 multiplied by 4, perpendicular afcent,
is equal to 21 ,6 elfeft of 4 feet head, by the theory ; and here again the ra-
tio of the efieds are as 8 to i ; and,

a- 3401,2 1 2J, the effect of j 6 feet head, ^ i .,^1. 1

is to 435, 1 52?, the etfe.it of 4 feet head, S ^^ '^^ ^^''''

fo is 172,8 taee.feaof i6teethead, ? , ^, ^,.

t.) 2 . ,6 the ehec^ of 4 feet head, 5 ^^ ^^^ ^^^"^^

The quaiitities being equal, their ellec^s arc as the height of theirheads di-
rai^iy, as by ith \■^.\v, and a; the iquare.-. of their velocities as bv 7th law.
Hence it appear^, that the t-trory agrees with the eftabliflied law's, which I
tci.;e CO be aconfi.-jnation that it is v, i;ll founded.

Chap, XI L

HYDRAULICS.

appertures, are as the cubes of their veJociiies.*

9. Their velocity under any liead is equal to
the velocity that a heavy body would acquire, in
falling from the fame height. t

10. U'heir velocity is iucli under any head or
height, as will pafs over a dillance equal to twice
the heigiit of the head, in a horizontal direction,
in the time that a heavy body falls the dillance of
the height of the head.

1 1. Their a6tion and reaction are equal. |

12. They being non-elaflic, communicate only
half their real force by impuife, in flriking obfla-

' The efFc'ils of ftriking fluids with equal apertures are as the cubes of
jtheir velocities, for the following reafons, viz ift, II" an equal quantity
ftrike with double velocity, the elTert is quadruple on that account by the
7th law ; and a double velocity expends a double quantity by 3d law ; there-
fore, the eflecTiis amounted to the cube of the velocity. — The theory for un-
iderfhot wheels agrees with this law alio.

A SCALE foHnded on the 3rd, 6th and 7th laws, fhewing the efiec'ts of
ftriking Fluids, with different Velocities.

Art. 47.

<D
rt-

1
■5]
cr

%
o"
0

ft
Q.

CI.

0«
2. c

ftl

I
0"

fi)

I jX

X i « =

■

4| =

Vi'

'1^:-.

f The falling body is afted on by the whole force of its own gravity, in
i:he M'hole of its defcent through any Ipacc ; and the whole fum of this atflion
,:hat is acquired as it arrives at the loweil point of its fall, is equal to the
jreflure of the whole head or perpendicular height above the illue ; there-
fore their velocities are equal.

' I That is, they re-aftback againft the penftock v/ith the fame force that
t iffiies againft the obftacle it ftrikes : this is the principle by which Bar-
Iter's mill, and all thufc that are improvements thereon, moves.

84 HYDRAULICS. Chap, XII.

Art. AT. cles ; but by their gravity produce efFe<fts, equal
to elaftic or Iblid bodies.*

Application of the La-a^s of Motion to Underfhot
IV heels.

To give a fhort and compreiienfive detail of the
ideas, I have colIe£ted from the different authors,
and from the refult of my ov/n reafoning on the
laws of motion, and offpouting fluids, as they ap-
ply to move underfhot mills, 1 conflrn£ted fig. 44.
plate V.

Let us fuppofe two large wheels, one of 1 2
feet, and the other of 24 feet radius, then the cir-
cumference of the largeft, will be double that of
the fmalleft: and let A 16, and C 16, be two pen-
fcocks of water, of 16 feet head, each.

1 . Then, if we open a gate of i fquare foot at 4,
Lav/scfmoti- to iffuc from the penflock A 16, and impinge on
L'^gfltidfap." the fmall wheel at I, the water being preffed by
plied in prac 4. feet head, will move 16 feet per fecond. (we
^"^'^' omit fracScions) The inllant prefTiire or force

on that gate, being 4 cubic feet of v/ater, it will
require a refiftance of 4 cubic feet of water, from
the head C 16 to ftop it, and hold it in equilibrio.
(but we fiippofe the water cannot efcape uniefs
the wheel moves, fo that no force be lofl by non-'
elafticity) Here equal quantities of matter, with',
equal velocities, have their momentums equfil.

2. Again, fuppofe we open a gate of i fqnare
foot at A 16 under 3 6 feet head, it will flrike the
lavge wheel at k, with velocity 32, its inftant-
force or preiTure being 16 cubic feet of watei",
it will require 16 cubic feet refiftance, from the
head C 16, to ftop or balance it. in this cafe the

* when non-eJaitic bodie-, ftrike an obftacle, one half of tlieir force is
fpentin a lateral diretftion, in changing their figure, or in fplaftiing about.
See art. 8.

For want of due conrideration or Icnov/Iedge of this principle, many have
been the errors committed by app'iv'.ng water to act by irnpulfc, when it
Vi'ould have produced a double cilecl by its gravity.

Chap. XII. HYDRAULICS.

preiTure or inflant force is quadruple, and fo is ^j-t. 47.
the refinance, but the velocity only double, to
the firil cafe. In thefe two cafes the forces and
reliftances being equal quantities, with equal ve-
locities, their momentums are equal.

3. Again, fappofc the head C 16 to be raifed to
E, 16 feet above 4, and a gate drawn ^ of a fquare
foot, then the inftant prefTure on the float I of
the iniall wheel, will be 4 cubic feet, preffing on
\^ of a fquare foot, and will exadlly balance 4 cu-
bic feet, pre/fing on i fquare foot, from the head
A 16 ; and the wlieel will be in equilibrio, (fup-
poling the v/ater cannot efcape until the wheel
moves as before) although the one has power of
velocity 32, and the otl:ier only 16 feet per fe-
cond. Their loads at equilibrio are equal, confc-
quently their loads at a maximum velocity and
charge, w^iil be equal, but their velocities differ-
{ ent.

I Then, to try their effecls, fuppofe, iirft, the
{wheel to move by the 4 feet head, its maximum
ivelocity to be half the velocity of the water,
which is 16, and its maximum load to be half its
greatefl load, which is 4 by VVaring's theory ;
then the velocity 16 | 2xby the load 4 | 2 = 16,
the eftecl of the 4 feet head, with 16 cubic feet
expended ; becaufc the velocity of the water is
16, and the gate i foot.

Again, fuppoic^ it to move by the 16 feet head
and gate of i- of a foot ; then the velocity 32 j 2
xby the load4 | 2—32, the effed:, with but 8 cu-
bic feet expended, becaufe the velocity of the
water is 32, and the gate but -i of a foot.

In this cafe the inflant forces are equsl, each
being 4 ; bat the one moving a body only -'- as
heavy as the other, moves with velocity 32, and
produces eifecl 32, while the other, moving with
velocity 16, produces eifect 16. A double velo-
city, with equal inflant prefTure, produces a dou-
ble eiTecl, which fecms to be according to the
Newtonian theory. And in this fenfe the

86 HYDRAULICS. C/iap, XIL

Art. 47. momentunis of bodies in motion, are as their

quantities, multiplied into their limple velocities,
and this I call the inllant momentums.

But when we coniider, that in the above cafe,
it was the quantity of matter put in motion, or
water expended, that produced the elfe^t, we
find that the quantity i6, with velocity 16, pro-
duced effedt i6 ; while qu. 8, with velocity 32,
produced efFed: 32. Here the eifedts are as their
quantities, multiplied into the fquares of their
yeiocities ; and this I call the effedlive momen-
tums.

Again, if the quantity expended under each
head, had been equal, their efFe£ls would have
been 16 and 64, which is as the fquares of their
■ velocities, i6aHd32.

4. Again, fuppole both wheels to be on one
fhaft, and let a gate of f of a fquare foot be drawn
at i6C,to ftrike the wheel at k, the head being 16
feet, the inftant prelfure on the gate will be 2 cu-
bic feet of water, which is half of the 4 feet head
with I foot gate, from A 4 ftriking at I ; but the
16 feet head, with inllant prcffure 2, acting on
the great wheel, will balance 4 feet on the fmall
one, becaufe the lever is of double length, and
the wheels will be in equilibrio. Then, by Wa-
ring's theory, the greatell load of the 16 feet
head being 2, its load at a maximum will be i,
and the velocity of the water being 32, the max-
imum velocity of the wheel will be 16. Now
the velocity 16X1 = 16, the elFecl of the ] 6 feet
head, and gate off of a foot. The greatell load
of the 4 feet head being 4, its maximum load 2,
the velocity of the w^ater i6,and the velocity of
the wheel 8, now 8X2=16, the effed. Here the
effefts are equal : and here again the effecrs are as
the inflant preffures, multiplied into their limple
velocities ; and the reliftances that would inftant-
ly ftop them, muft be equal thereto, in the fame
ratio.

Chap, XtL HYDRAULICS. ^y

But when wc conllder, that in this cafe, the 4 Art. 47.
feet head expended 16 cubic feet of water, with
velocity 16, and produced effect 16; while the 16
feet head expended only 4 cubic feet of water,
with velocity 32, and produced efFe(il 16, we find,
that the eifeds are as their quantities, multiplied
into thcfquares of their velocities.

x\nd when we conllder, that the gate of 4 of a
fquare foot, with velocity 32, produced effeds
equal to the gate of i fquare foot, with velocity
16, it is evident, that if we make the gates equal,
the eifecls will be as 8 to i ; that is, the efFefts of
fpouting fluids, with equal apertures, are as the
cubes of their velocities; becaufe, their inftant
forces are as the fquares of their velocities by
^th law.

The Hydroflatic Paradox, Art. 48.

THE preffure of fluids is as their perpendicu-
lar heights, without any regard to their quanti-
ty ; and their preffure upwards is equal to their
jpreirbre downwards. In fhort, their preffure is
every way equal, at any equal diflance from their
jfurface.'*
i

I * To explain which, let A B C D, plate III, fig;. 22, be a veffel of water of HvdrwftatiF

li cubical form, with a fmall tube as H, fixed therein ; let a hole of the fame naradox

jlize of the tube be made at e, and covered with a piece of pliant leather, ujained

jiailed thereon, fo as to hold the water. Then fill the veflel with water by

|;he tube H, and it will prefs upwards againft the leather, and raife it in a

ponvex form, requiring juft as much weight to prefs it down, as will be

pqual to the weight of water in the tube H. Or if we fet a glafs tube over

|:he hole at o, and pour water therein, we will find that the water in the

|:ube o, mult be of the fame height of that in tube H, before the leather will

|\ibfide, even if the tube O be much larger than H ; which fliews, that the

preifure upwards is equal to the prefl'ure downwards ; becaufe, the water

prelled up againft the leather with the wfeole weight of the water in the

;;ube H. Again, If we fill the velfel by the tube I, it will rife to the fame

jieight in H that it is in I ; tlie preffure being the fame in every part of the

i-eif.-l as if it had been fiUad by H; and th2 preffure on the bottom of the

I'effel will be the fame, whether tiie tube H be of the whole fize of the vef-

jel, or only one quarter of an inch diameter. For fuppofe H to be I -4 of an

Inch diameter, and the whole top of the veffel of leather as at o, and we

pour water down H, it will prefs the leather up with fuch force, that it will

jequire a column of water of the v/hole fize of the vellel, and height of H,

to caufe the leather to fubfide. ^. E. D.

ex-

Art. 48..

HYDRAULICS.

C/iap, XI J,

In a vciTel of a cubic form, whofe fides and bot-
tom are ieqiial, the preffure on each fide is jufl
half the prefTiire on the bottom ; therefore the
prefTure on the bottom and fides, is equal to 3
times its prefTure on the bottom.*

And in this fenfe fluids may be laid to act with
three times the force of foiids. Solids act by
gravity only, but fluids by gravity and prefTure
jointly. "Solids act v/ith a force proportional to
their quantity of matter ; but fluids act with a
prefTure proportional to their altitude only.

— — •«S>'^<^>' — -

The Vy-eight of a cubic foot of water is found
Art. 50. by experience, to be 1000 ounces avoirdupoife,
or 62,51b. On thefe principles is founded the
folio V7inp- theorem.

E O II E M

Theorem for The area of the bafe or bottom, or any part of
preirufeofthe ^ vciTel, of whatever form, multiplied by the
water on the greatefl perpendicular height of any part of the
gate, &c. Hoid^ above the centre of the bafe or bottom,

Art. 49.

Water may be
conveyed to
the wheel of a
mill anyway
moit conveni-
ent.

And aj^ain, Suppofe we make two holes in the veflel, one clofe to the bot-
tom, and the other in the bottom, both of one fize, the water will ifiue with
equal velocity out ©f each ; which may be proved by holding equal veiTels
under each, which will be filled in equal time ; which fhews, that the pref-
fuve on the fides and bottom are equal under equal diftances from the fur-
face. And this velocity will be the fame whether the tube be filled by pipe
I, or H, or by a tube the v/hole fize of the veflel, provided the perpendicu-
lar height be equal in ail cafes.

From what has been faid, it appears, that it makes no difference in the
power of water on mill-wheels, whether it be brought on in an open forebay
and perpendicular penftock, or down an inclining one, as I C ; or imder
ground in a clofe trunk, in any form that may beft fuit the fituation and cir-
cumftances, provided that the trunk be large enough to fupply the water
faft enough to keep the head from finking.

This principle of the Hydroftatic Parado?:, has fometimes taken place
underfliot mills, by preffing up againft the bottom of the buckets, thereby
deftroying or counterafting great part of the force of impulfc. See art. 59"

* For demonftration, fee Philofophia Britania.

Chap. XII, HYDRAULICS. 89

whatever be its pofition with the horizon, pro- Art. se-
duces the prelTure on the bottom of faid veffel.

PROBLEM. I.

Given, the length of. the fides of the cubic
veffel (fig. 22. \A, in.) 6 feet, required the pref-
fure on th^ bottom when full of water.
( Then 6x6 = 36 feet, the area, multiplied by 6,
the altitude, = 2 1 6, the quantity, or cubic feet of
iwater, preffing on the bottom ; which multiplied
by 62,5 = i350olb. the whole preffure on the bot-
tom.

PROBLEM. n.

Given, the height of a penllockof water 31,5
feet, and its dimeniions at bottom 3 by 3 feet,
infide, required the preffure on 3 feet high of one
of its fides.

Then, 3x3=9 the area, multiplied by 30 feet, crcatftrength
the perpendicular height or head above its centre required to
= 270 cubic feet of water prefling, which X62,5 uKder high
= I 68751b. the preffure on one yard fquare, which '^^^^^•
piews what great ffrength is required, to hold the
iwater under fuch great heads.
I

^<^<^<S>)- —

Rule for finding the Velocity of /pouting TVater, Art. 51.

BY experiments it has been found, that water
will fpout from under a 4 feet head, with a velocity
■qual to 16,2 feet per fecond, and from under 16
eet head, Vvith a velocity equal to 32,4 feet per
Tecond.

On theic experiments, and the 2nd lav/ of fpout-
ng fluids, is founded t'lc following theorem, or

90 HYDRAULICS. Chap. XIL

Art. jr. general rule for finding the velocity of water un-

der any given head.

THEOREM n.

Rule for find- -^^ '^^^ fquarc root of a 4 feet head ( = 2) is to
ingtheveio- 16^2 feet, thc velocity of the water, fpouting un-
ii'g wlt?r!"*' ^-^' ^•> ^^ i^ ^^^^ fquare root of any other head, to
the velocity of the ^ater fpouting under it.

PROBLEM L

Given, the head of water i6 feet, required
the velocity of water fpouting under it.

Then, as the fquare root of 4 ( = 2) is to 16,2,
fo is the fquare root of 16, (=4j to 32,4, the
velocity of the water under the 16 feet head.

PROBLEM H.

Given, a head of water of 1 1 feet, required thc
velocity of water fpouting under it.

Then, as 2:16, 21:3, 316:26, 73 feet per fecond,
the velocity required.

Art. 5:

■«^df^<^>-- —

FROM the laws of fpouting fluids, theorems
I. and n. the theory for finding the maximum
charge and velocity of urderfhot wheels, (art.
42) and the principle of non-elafticity, is deduc-
ed the following theorem for finding the eifeft of
any gate, drawn under any given head, upon an
underfliot water-Vv^hcel,

Chap, XII. HYDRAULICS. 91

THEOREM HI. Art. 52.

Find, by theorem I. (art. 50) the inftantane- Rule for find-
ous preiTure of the water, which is the load at "f^ny'gaV
eqnilibrio, and ~ thereof is the maximum load, drawn under
which, multiplied by ,577 of the velocity of the a.runde?fl°ot
water, under the given head, (found by theo. II. j wheel.
produces the efFe£l.

P R O B L E M.

Given, the head t6 feet, gate 4 feet wide,
,j25 of a foot drawn, required the eifed: on an un-
derlhot wheel, per fecond. The meafurc of the
eifedl to be the quantity, multiplied into its dif-
|tance moved, (velocity) or into its perpendicular
afcent.

Then, by theorem T. (art. 50) 4X,25 = i fquare
foot, the area of the gate x 16=16 the Cubic feet
prelfing ; but, for the fake of round numbers,
Vv^e caJl each cubic foot i, and although 32,4
cubic feet ftrike the wheel per fecond, yet, on ac-
count of non-elafcicity, only 16 cubic feet is the
load at equilibrio, and \ of 16 is 10,666, the max-
imum load.

Then, by theorem II. the velocity is 32,4,
^^y'] of which is = i8;_,7i, the maximum velocity
of the wheel X i©,65,' the load=:ic)9,4, the effeft.

This agrees with Smeaton's obfervations, where
he fays, (art. 67] "It isfomewhat remarkable, that
though the velocity of the wheel, in relation to
tlie velocity of the water, turn out to be more
than Y, yet the impuife of the water, in cafe of
the maximum, is more than double of what is
aligned by theory ; tiiat is, inflead of ^y of the
coidmn, it is nearly equal to the whole column."
Hence I conclude, that non-elafticity doss not
operate fo much againil this application, as to

HYDRAULICS. Chap, XII,

reduce the load to be lefs than \. And when we
confider, that 32,4 cubic feet of water, or a cor
lumn 32,4 feet long, flrike the wheel while it
moves only 18,71 feet, the velocity of the wheel
being to the velocity of the water as 577 to 1000.
May not this be the reafon why the load is juft \_
of the head, which brings the efFe£t to be juft
,38 (a little more than f of the power.) This I
admit, becaufe it agrees with experiment, altho'
it be difficult to affign the true reafon thereof,
See annotation, art. 42. . \

Therefore ^^yy the velocity of the water=5J
18,71, multiplied by ^ of 16, the whole column,|
or inftantaneous prefTure, prelTing on the wheel'
— art. 50 — which is 10,66, produces 199,4, the
effeft. This appears to be the true effed:, and if
• fo the true theorem will be as follows, viz.

THEOREM.

Find, by thebr^m I. art. 50, the inftantane-
ous preflure of the water, and take ~ for the max-
imum load ; multiply by ^c^'^y of the velocity
of the water — which is the velocity of the wheel
— and the produdt will be the effect.

Then 16 cubic feet, the column, multiplied by
i-=io, 66, the load, which, multiplied by 18,71,
the velocity of the wheel, produces 199,4, for
the effect ; and if we try dyierent heads and dif-
ferent apertures, we find tlie effcfts to bear the
ratio to each other, that is agreeable to the laws
of fpou ting fluids.

Water applied on Wheels to ad by Gravity.

rn, BUT when fluids are applied to aft on v/heels
to jDroduce effects by their gravity, they act on
Very different principles, producing double ef-
fects, to what they do by percuffion, and then

Ohap. XIL H Y D Pv A U L I C S. 93

their powers are directly as their quantity or Art. 53.
w^eight, multiplied into their perpendicular dc-

fcent.

DEMONSTRATION.

Let fig. 19, plate III. be a lever, turning on Fig. 19.
Its centre or fulcrum A. Let the long arm A B
reprefent the perpendicular defcent, 16 feet, the Demonftra-
Tiort arm A D a defcent of 4 feet, and fuppofe power of wa-
Isvater to ifTue from the trunk F, at the rate of 50 ^^'''^T'^l'
[b. in a fecond, falling into the buckets faftened i, as the '
;uO the lever at B. Now, from the principles of quantity,

[,, /..., , 11- multiplied m-

phe lever— art. 16 — it is evident, that 501b. in a to their dia-
recond, at B, will balance 20olb. in a lecond, at meters or per-

U.^. ~ , i,-i*«' in pendicular

p, iltuing irom the trunk G, on the Ihort arm ; defcent.
pecaufe 50X16=4x200=800, each. Perhaps it
aiay appear plainer if we fuppofe, the perpendicu-
lar line or diameter FC, to reprefent the defcent
Df 16 feet, and the diameter Gf a defcent of 4
Peet. By the laws of the lever — art. 16 — it is
iliewn, that, to multiply 50 into its perpendicu-
lar defcent 16 feet or dillance moved, is=r2oo,
jniultiplied into its perpendicular defcent 4 feet,
jDr diliance moved ; that is, 50)^16=200X4=: 800 ;
[that is, their power is as their quantity, multi-
Iplied into their perpendicular defcent ; or, in
]other words, a fall of 4 feet will require 4 times
jas much water, as a fall of 16 feet, to produce
bqual power and eifects. Q^ E. D.-
j Upon thefe principles is founded the following
Qmple theorem, for meafuring the power of an
averfhot mill, or of a quantity of water, acting
upon any mill-wheel by its gravity.

T K E O F^ E M IV.

Caufe the water to pafs along a regular canal,
md multiply its depth in feet and parts, by its

94 HYDRAULICS. Chap. XII,^

Art. 53. width in feet and parts, for the area of its fec-r

tion, which produft multiply by its velocity per

Rule for mea- fecond in fcct and parts, and the product is the

lurinff the j, / ^ jl

po^rer of a cubic fcct ufcd per fccond, which multiplied by
mill-feat. 62,51b. the weight of I cubic foot, produces the
v/eight of water per fecond, that falls on the
wheel, which multiplied by its whole perpendi-
cular defcent, gives a true meafure of its power,

PROBLEM I.

Given, a mill-feat with 1 6 feet fall, width of
the canal 5,333 feet, depth 3 feet, velocity of
the water palling along it 2,03 feet per fecond,
required the power per fecond.

Then, 5,333^3 = 1 5>999 feet, the area of the
feilion of the flream, multiplied by 2,03 feet, the
velocity, is equal 32,4 cubic feet, the quantity per
fecond, multiplied by 62,5 is equal 2025]b. the
weight of the water per fecond, multiplied by 16,
the perpepdjcular defcent, is equal 32400, for the
power of the feat per fecond.

PROBLEM IL

Given, the perpendicular defcent 18.3, width
of the gate 2,66 tieet, height ,115 of a foot, ve-
locity of the water per fecond, ilTuing on the
wheel 1 5,76 feet, required the pov/er.

Then, 2,66x, 145.— ,3857 the area of the gate,
Xi5,76 the velocity 1=6, 1 78 cubic feet, expended i
per fecondx6 2, 5=375, 81b. per fecondXiBjg feet
perpendicular defcent=6877 for the meaiure of j
the power per fecond, which ground 3,751b. per
miwute, equal 3,75 bufliels in an hour, with a
five feet pair of bur flones,

Inveftigation cj the Principles of Over^oi Mills.

Art. 54. SOME have afferted, and many believed?
that water is applied to great difadvantage on

Chap, XII, HYDRAULICS.

!the principle of an overfliot mill ; becaufe, fay Art. 54;
they, there are never more than two buckets,
}at once, that can be faid to adt fairly on the end Water aiSs
lof the lever, as the arms of the vv^ he el are called power^™"a*?
iin thefe arguments. But */e muft confider v^ell pverihot, as if
ithe laws of bodies, defcending inclined plains, and aafalriy on
[curved furfaces. See art. 10, 11. This matter thebreaft
will be cleared up, if we conlider the circumfer- w^hoifont?^
ence of the wheel to be the curved furface ; perpendicular
for the faft is, that the water afts to the ^^^^^"-^^
bell advantage, and produces effedis equal to what
it would, in cafe the whole of it afted upon
the very end of the lever, in the whole of its
perpendicular defcent.*

DEMONSTRATION.

Let ABC, fig. 20, reprefent a water-wheel, Fig. 20, pi.
bnd F H a trunk, bringing water to it from a 16 ^'^•
[feet head. Now fuppofe F G and 16 H to be Demonftra-
two penftocks under equal heads, down which the *^^°"'
iwater defcends, to aft on the w^heel at C, on the
principle of an underfliot, on oppolite fides of the
float C, with equal apertures. Now it is evident
from the principles of hydroftatics, fliewn bv the
paradox (art. 48, and the ift law of fpouting
fluids arC. 45.) that the impulfe and prelTure will be
squai from each penftock rcfpeclively. Although
the one be an inclined plain, and tlie other a perpen-
dicular, their forces are equal, becaufe their per-
pendicular heights are ; (art. 48) therefore the
wheel will remain at reli, becaufe each iide. of
the float is preiTed on by a column of water of
equal iize and height, as reprefented by the
lines on each fide of the float. Then fuppofe
we fliQt the penilock FG, and let the water down
the circular one rx, which is clcfe to the point

* This error has been t':ie caufe of maiiy cxpeufive errors in the applica-
tion of water.

g6 ' HYDRAULICS* C/iap, XII,

Art. 54. of the buckets ; this makes it obvious, from the

fame principles, that the wheel will be held in
equilibrio, if the columns of each lide be equaL
For, although the column in the circular pen-
flock is longer than the perpendicular one, yet,
becaufe part of its weight preffes on the lower
iide of the penftock, its preffure on the float is on-
ly equal to the perpendicular.

Then, again, fappofe the column of water in
the circular penftock, to be inftantly thrown into
,,^-"-' the buckets, it is evident, that the w^heel will ftill

be held in equilibrio, and each bucket v/ill then
bear a proportional part of the column, that the
bucket C bore before ; and that paat of the
v/eight of the circular column, which refled on
the under fide of the circular penftock, is now
on the gudgeons of the wheel. This fliews that
the efl'ed: of a ftream, applied on an overfhot
wheel, is equal to the cfre6t of the fame ftream,
applied on the end of the lever, in its whole per-

Fig. at. pendicular defcent, as in fig. 21, where the wa-

ter is fhot into the buckets faftened to a ftrap or

byTchaiiTand chain, rcvolviug over two v/ heels ; and here the

buckets. whole forcc of the gravity of the column adts on
the very end of the lever, in the whole of its
defcent. Yet, becaufe the length of the column
in action, in this cafe, is only 16 feet ; whereas
on a 16 feet wheel the length of the column in
aftion is 25,15, therefore the powers are equal.
Again, if we divide the half circle into 3 arch-
es Ab, be, eC, the centre of gravity of the up-
per and lower arches, will fall near the point a,
3,9 feet from the centre of motion, and the cen-
tre of gravity of the middle arch, near the point o
7,6 feet from the centre of motion. Now each
of thefe arches is 8,3.8 feet, and 8,38X2X3,9=
65,36, and 8,38x756 feet=63,07, which two pro-
ducts added=i 28,43, for the momentum of the
circular column, by the lav/s of the lever, and
for the perpendicular column 16x8 the radius of

Chap. XIL HYDRAULICS. 97

the wheelr=i2§, for the momentum ; by v/hich Art. j4.
it appears, that if we could determine the exad
points on v/hich the arches a£t, the momentums
would be equal, all which Ihews, that the power
of water on overfhot wheels, is equal to the whole
power it can any v/ay produce, through the whole
of its perpendicular defcent, except what may be
lofl to obtain velocity, (art. 41) overcome fridion,
or by part of the water fpilling, before it gets to
the bottom of the wheel. (^ i!^. D.

1 may add, that I have made the following ex- provedbyex-
periment, viz. I fixed a truly circular wheel on periment.
nice pivots, to evade friction, and took a cylindric
rod of thick wire, cutting one piece exactly the
length of half the circumference of the wheel,
and faftening it to one iide, clofe to the rim of
the wheel its whole length, as at GxrA. I then
took another piece of the fame wire, of a length
equal to the diameter of the wheel, and hung it
on the oppoiite fide, on the end of the lever or
arm, as at B, and the wheel was in equilibrio.
Q. E. D.

— .■•«S>'^-<^>^''^

Of the Fndion of the Apertures of Spouting Art. ^^.
Fluids,

THE doftrine of this fpecies of friiftion ap- ofthefric-
pears to be as folio v/s : tionofthe

1. The ratio of thefridion of round apertures, JJ"';''^' ''^
are as their diameters, nearlv, while their quanti- fluids. *
ties expended, are as the fquares of their diame-
ters.

2. The friction of an aperture, of any re-
gular or irregular figure, is as the length of
the fi:m of riie circnnircrihing lines, nearly ; the

HYDRAULICS.

Chap, XII

Art. 55. quantities being as the areas of the aperture**

Therefore,

3. The iefs the head or prefTure, and the larger

the aperture, the Iefs the ratio of the fridlion ;

therefore,
Need not be 4. This friftioo need not be much regai-ded,
^^S'i^^'l^d in |,^ the large openings or apertures of underfhot
minV; mills, where the gates are from 3 to 15 inches on

B tjiufibe their fiiorteft lides : but it very fenlibly aifedts
overiiiots. tiic Imall apcrturcs of high overihot or underlhot

millSy vv-ith great heads, where their fliorteft (ides

are from live tenths of an inch to two inches, t

-<^5> ^<^>" —

Art. 56.

PreiTure of
the air the
caiife of the
riie of fluids.

Qf the Preffure of the u^ir on fluids,

THE fecond caufe of the motion or rife of
fiuids, is the prefTure of the air on the furface of
them, in the fountain or refervoir ; and this pref-
Ture is equal to a head of water of 33] feet per-
pendicular height, under which prefTure or height
of head, the velocity of lyoutiiig water is 46,73
feet per fecond.

* This will appear, if we confider and fuppofe, that the friftion does fen-
fibly retard the velocity of the fluid to a certain diftance. Say half an inch
from the fide or edge of the aperture, towards its centre ; and we may rea-
fonably conclude, that this diftance will be nearly the fame in a 2 and I2 inch
aperture ; fo that in the 2 inch aperture, a ring on the outfide, hall" an inch
•^vidCj is lenfibly retarded, which is about 3^ of the whole ; while, in the
12 inch aperture, there is a ring on the outfidc half an inch wide, retarded
about 1-6 of its whole area.

t Tills feems to be proved by Smeaton, in his experiments ; (fee table,
art. 67) wh..re, when the head was 33 inches, the fluice fmall, drawn only
to the lit hole, the velocity of the water was only Inch as is afllgned by
theory, to a head of 15,85 inches, which he calls virtual head. But when
the fluice was larger, drawn to the 6th hole, and head 6 inches, the virtual
head was 5,03 inches. But feeing there is no theorem yet difcovered by
which we can trulv determine the quantity or efl'ec> of their friction, accord-
ing to the lize of the aperture, and he i;^ lit of the head; therefoi'e, we can
not, by tbe eftabliilied laws of Iiydroltatic^, determine exactly, the velocity
or quantity expended through any fiiiall aperture ; which renders the theory
but little betier than conjeifture in thcfe cafes.

Chap, XII. HYDRAULICS. 99

Therefore, if we could by any means take off Art. 56.
the prefTiire of the atinofphere, from any one
part of the furface of a fluid, that part would
fpout up with a velocity of 46,73 feet per fecond,
and rife to the height of 33^- feet, nearly.*

On this principle act all fyplions or cranes, and
all pumps for railing water by futlion, as it is
called. — Let fig. 23, pi. IIL reprelent a caflc of J^^'S- ^3- pi-
water, with a lyphon therein, to extend 334. feet
above the furface of the water in the cafk. Now fyp"onffor°^
if the bung be made perfectly air-tight, round the decanting li-
fyphon, fo that no air can get into the cafl^., and ^•"*''''
the cafk be full, then, if ail the air be drawn out
of the fyphon, at the bended part A, the fluid
will not rife in the fyphon, becanfe the air can-
not get to it to prefs it up ; but take out the plug
P, and let the air into the cailc, to prefs on the
furface of the v/ater, and it will fpout up thefliort
leg of the fyphon BA, with the fame force and
velocity, as if it had been prefTed with a head of
water 33! feet high, and will run into the long
\t% and will fill it. Then if we turn the cock c,
and let the water run out, its weight in the long
Jeg will overbalance the v/eight in the fhort one,
idrawing the water out of the ca/I^, until the
1 water link fo low, that the leg B A will be
1334- feet liigh, above the furface of the water in
the cafk ; then it ^yiiX flop, becaule the weight
of water in the leg, in which it riles, will be
equal to the weight of a column of the air of
equal fize, and of the whole height of the atmof-
phere. The water will not run out of the leg

Tills fcems to be tlie principle m whirl v/lnds at fca, called --.vater Principles oi"
fpont- ; the v/ind meeting from different points, forms a quick circular mo- vater-fpoii, .
tion ; and by the centrifugal force forms a partial vacnu-a in the centre, at lea.
wh;c>. gives liberty to the water to rife a little, which is 17 the rapidity of
the motion of the air, rent into very fmall particle:, : v/hich fo increafes the
furface, ti-iat the air takes fufficient hold of it to carry it up. And as the
•wind meeting has no way to vent itfelfbut in a perpendicular direftion,
therefore, a briik current is formed upwards, carrying the v/ater with it, at
!fea; but on the land, it raifes leaves of trees and other light bodies. Sec
[Franklia's Letters.

lOO HYDRAULIC S. Chap. XII,

Art. 56. A c, but will fiand full 334- feet above its month,

becaufe the air will prefs up the mouth c, with a
force that will balance 33-^ feet of water in
the leg c A. This v/ill be the cafe, let the up-
per part of the leg be any fize whatever — and
there will be a fmall vacuum in the top of the
long leg.

^^^'^••^7- Of Pumps,

Fig- 24, pi. LET fig. 24, pi. III. reprefent a pump of the

common kind, ufed for drawing v/ater cut of
principles of wclls. The moveable valve or bucket A, is cafed
Pumps for with leather, which fprings outv^^ards, and fits
'^ the tube fo nicely, that neither air nor water can

pafs freely by it. When the lever L is worked,
the valve A opens as it defcends, letting the air
or water pafs through it. As it afcends again
the valve fhuts ; the v/atcr which is above the
bucket A is raifed, and there would be a vacuum
between the valves, but the weight of the air
prelTes on the furface of the water in the well,
at W, forcing it up through the valve B to fill
the fpace between the buckets ; and as the valve
A delcends, B lliuts, and prevents the water from
defcending again : But if the upper valve A be fet
more than 33-^ feet above the furface of the water
in the well, the pump cannot be made to drav/,
becaufe the preffure of the atmofphcre will
not caufc the Vv-ater to rife more than 33-7 feet.

Chap. XII,

HYDRAULIC

loi

Art. 57-

A TABLE FOR PUMP -MAKERS.

-^=

Height of the

Diameter of

Water difcharged in

pump in feet

the bore.

a minute in

wme

above the fur-

h-» 0 *^

meafure.

face of the
well.

3 h-K 0

0 3>^

r-r

" S'S

6 93

5 66

4 90

4 38

4 00

3 70

3 46

3 27

3 10

2 95

2 84

2 72

2 62

1 1

2 53

2 45

2 38

2 31

2 25

100

2 19

'-^

zMr

" All pumps fhould be fo conftrufted as to work with equal eafe, in raif-
ng the water to any given height above the furface of the well : and this
nay be done by obferving adue proportion betv^een the diameter of that
)art of the pump bore in which the pifton or bucket v^orks, and tlie height
;o which the v.'ater niuil be raifed.

" For this purpofe I have calculated the above table, in which the han-
ille of the pump is fuppofed to be a lever, increafing the power five times :
jUatis, the diiiance or length of that part of the handle that lies between
he pin on v/hich it moves, and the top of the pump-rod to which it is fixed,
r.o be only one fifth part of the length of the handle, from the laid pin to
l.he part where the man (who works the pump) applies his force or ppwer.
j " In the firft coluTTn of the table, find the height at v/hich the pump mufl
lUfcharge the water above the furface of tlie well ; the'n in the I'econd co-
lumn, you have the diameter of that part of the bore in which the niflon
I'r bucket Nvorks, in inches and hundredth parts of an inch; in the third
;olumn is the quantity of v/-ater, (in wine meafu.e) that a man of common
ilrengta can raife in a minute — And by conflruCting according to this me-
Ihod, p'lmps of all heights may be wrought by a man of ordinary flrrength
b as to be able to hold out for an hour.'' Jamis Ferguson-

lO;

HYDRAULICS.

Chap. XIt\

Art. 58. Of conveying IVater under Valleys and over Hills,

Fig. 20.

To convey
water under
valleys and
over hills.

"WATER, by its prelFure, and the prefTure
of the atmofphcre, may be conveyed under val-
leys and over hills, to fuppiy a family, a mill,
o? a town. See iig. 20. pi. III. F H is a canal for
conveying water to a mill-wheel. Now let us
fuppofe FG 16 H to be a tight tube or trunk — •
the water being let in at F, it will defcend from
F to G, and its preffure at F will caufe it to
rife to H, palling along if permitted, and may be
conveyed over a hill by a tube, afting on the
principle of the fyphon. (art. 56) But where fome
have had occafion thus to convey water under
^ny obftacle for the convenience of a mill, which
often occurs in practice they have gone into the
following expenfive error : They make the tube
at G 16 fmaller than if it had been on a level,
becaufe, fay they, a greater quantity will pafs
through a tube, prelTed by the head G F, than
on a level. But they fhould conlider that the
head G F is balanced by the head H 16, and the ve-
locity through the tube G 16 will only be fuch
that a head equal to the difference between the
perpendicular height of GF and H i 6 v/ould give
it ; (fee art. 41, fig. 19) therefore it fhould be as
large at G 16 as if on a level.

Art 5o. ^f ^^^^ Difference of the Force of indefinite and de-
finite Quantities of JVater ftrihing a IV heel.

D ,E F I N I T I O N S.

I. BY an indefinite quantity of water we here
mean a river or large quantity, much larger than

\:kap, XII. HYDRAULICS. 103

Ihe float of the wheel, fo that, when it ftrikes Art. 59.
[he float, it has liberty to move or efcape from ofthe force
t in every lateral direction. of definite &

j 2. By a definite quantity of water we mean a "J,an^"tfe^s of
Quantity pafling through a given aperture along a water,
hute to flirike, a M^heel ; but as it ftrikes the
iloat, it has liberty to efcape in every lateral direc-
ion.

3. By a perfedlly definite quantity, we mean a
[uantity pafling along a clofe tube fo confined,
hat when it ftrikes the float it has not liberty to
jfcape in any lateral diredtion.

Firft, When a float of a wheel is ftruck by an indefinite
bdefinite quantity, the float is ftruck by a co- ^"aterap-"^
umn of water, the feclion of which is equal to plied-
he area of the float ; and as this column is con-
ined on every lide by the furrounding water,
yhich has equal motion, it cannot efcape freely
ideways ; therefore more of its force is commu-
icated to the float than would be, in cafe it had
ree liberty to efcape (ideways in every direftion.

Secondlv, The float being ftruck by a definite Definitequaa-

-''.,,., ^ % ^ ^ . tity applied.

uantity, with liberty to eicape freely in every
idc direttion, it afts as the moft perfect non-elaf-
ic body ; therefore (by art. 8) it communicates
>nly a part of its force, the other part being
ipent in the lateral diredion. Hence it appears,
jhat in the application of water to adt by impulfe,
!ve fliould draw the gate as near as poffible to the,
lloat-board, and confine it as much as pofliblefrom
pfcaping lideways as it ftrikes the float; but,
taking care at the fame time, that we do not bring

he principle of the Hydroltatic Paradox into ac-

ion, (art 48).

I What pro|)ortion of the force of the water is
jpent in a lateral dired:ion is not yet determined,
bt fee Art. 8.
[ 3. A perfectly definite quantity ftriking a plain,

ommunicates its whole force ; becaufe no part
'an efcape fideways, and is equal in power to aa

I04 HYDRAULICS. Chap, XIT,

Art. 59, eiaftic body, or the weight of the water on an

AperfedHy ovcrfhot whccl, in its whole perpendicular de-
definite quail- fcent. But this application of Water to wlieels
bScamlotbe ^^^ httu hitherto impradlicablc ; for v/hen ever we
applied to a attempt to confiuc the water totally from efcap-
tleef^"^^'^^' ing lideways, we bring the paradoxical principle
into aftion which defeats the fcheme.*

To make this plain, let fig. 25, pi. Ill, be a wa-
Fig. 25. ter-wheel ; and firft, let us fuppofe the water to
be brought to it by the penftock 4. 16 to a£l by im-
pulfe on the float b, and have ft-ee liberty to e-
fcape every way as it ilrikes ; then by art. 8 it
will communicate but half its force. But if it be
confined both at fides and bottom and can efcape
only upwards, to which the gravity will make
fome oppofition, it will communicate perhaps
more than half its force, and will not re-act
back againft the float c. But if we put foaling-
to the wheel to prevent the water from efcaping
upvv'^ards, then the fpace between the floats will
be filled, as foon as the v/heel begins to be retard-
Pargdoxicd eol?^"^ the paradoxical principle art. 48 is brought
■mill that will fiilly into aftiou, viz. the prelTure of water is eve-
emp^r!^^ ry way equal, and preifes backwards againfl the
bottom of the float c, with a force equal to its
preffare on the top of the float b, and the wheel
will immediately flop and be held in equilibrio,
and will not ftart again although all refiftancc be
removed. This we may call the paradoxical
mill. There are many mills, where this princi-
ple is, in part, brought into adion, which very
much \Qiit:Tis their power.

Art, 60, ^f '^^^^ Motion ofBreafl and Pitch-back Wheels .

MANY have been of opinion, that when wa-
Fig. 25. ^j.j, jg p^^i- ^Q ^^ Qjj |.j,j^ wheel as at a (called a

* But this difficulty is now overcome by the valve wheel: See annota-
tion, art. 73.

'yhap, XIL HYDRAULICS.

105

|!ow breaft) v/ith 12 feet head, that then the 4 Art. 63.
feet fall belov/ the point of impact a, is totally
[oil, becaufe, fay they, the impulfe of the 12 feet Breaftand
head, will requir.' the wheel to move withfuch wheeis^does
v^elocity to liiit tiie motion of the water as to not mn before

br- .^ n • r- - • i ^. i the iiravitv ot"

erore the adtion of gravity, therefore the the water.

water cannot aft after the flroke. But if they

will conlider well the principles of gravity acl-

ing on falling bodies (art. 9) they will find, that,

^r the velocity of a falling body be ever fo great,

the aftion of gravity is ftill the fame to caufe it

to move fafter, fo that, although an overlliot

wheel may move before the power of the gravity,

f the v/ater thereon, yet no impulfe downwards

an give a v/heel fuch velocity, as that the gravi-

y of tlie v/ater acting thereon can be lelTened

hereby.*

Hence it appears, that when a greater head is DUeaithe wa-

fed, than what is necefTary to fhoot the water terdown-

fairly into the wheel, the impulfe Ihould be dired:- there is too

ed downv/ard a little as at D (which is called "^"^hhead,

ipitch-Dack) and have a circular meeting to pre- pitch-back, or

Ivcnt the water from leaving the wheel, becaufe ^reaft wheels.

if it belhot horizontally on the top of the wheel,

ithe impulfe in that cafe will not give the water

any greater velocity downwards, then, in this

cafe, the fall would be loft, if the head was very

great, and the Vv^hcel moved to fuit the velocity

of the impulfe, the water v/ould be thrown out

of the buckets by the centrifugal force; and if

we attempt to retard the wheel, fo as to retain

the water the mill will be fo ticklifli and unfteady,

that it wiJl be almofl impoiTible to attend it.

It gravity could be either decreafed by velocity dowmvavda, or increaf-
ed by velocity upv/ards, theiia virtical wheel without iViftioi5,eii;her of gud-
geons or air, would require a great force to continue its motion ; becaufe,
its velocity would decreafe the .p;ravity of its defcending fide, and increafe it
on iti afcending fide, which would immediately {top it : w-liersa; it is known,
that it requires no power to continue its motion, but what is neceflUry tw
overcome the friftion of the gudgeon-., Ix.

io6 HYDRAULICS. Chap. Xlh

Art. 63. Hence may appear -the reafon why breaft-

wheels g<enerally run quicker than overfliots, al-
though the fall after the water ftrikes be not fo
great.

1. There is generally more head allowed to
breaft-mills than overfliots, and the wheel wilt
incline to move with nearly 4- the velocity of the
water, fpouting from under the head, (^rt. 41).

2. If the water was permitted to fall freely
after it iffues from the gate, it would be accele-
rated by the fall, fo that its velocity at the low-
efh point, would be equal to its velocity, had it
fpouted from under a head equal to its whole per-
pendicular defcent. This accelerated velocity
of the water, teads to accelerate the wheel ;
hence, to find the velocity of a breafl-wheel,
where the water is ftruck on in a tangent direc-
tion as in iig. 31, 32, I deduce the following

THEOREM.

1. Find the difference of the velocity of the
water under the head allowed to the wheel, above
the point of impact, and the velocity of a falling
body, having fell the whole perpendicular de-
fcent of the water. Call this difference the ac-
celeration by the fall : Then fay, As the veloci-
ty of a falling body acquired in falling through
the diameter of any overfhot wheel, is to the pro-
per velocity of that wheel by the fcale, (art. 43)
fo is the acceleration by the fall, to the accelera-
tion of the wheel by the fall, after the water
flrikes the wheel.

2. Find the velocity of the water ilTuing on
the wheel ; take ^^yy of faid velocity, to which add
the accelerated velocity, and that fum will be
the velocity of the breaPc-wlieel.

Tliis rule u^ill hold nearly true, when the head
is coniiderably greater than is affigncd by the

Chap. XIL HYDRAULICS. 107

fcale (art. 43) ; but as the head approaches that ^rt. 63.
affigned by the fcale, this rule will give the mo-
tion too quick.

EXAMPLE.

Given, a high breaft-wheel, fiig. 25, where
the water is fhot on at d, the point of impact —
6 feet head, and 10 feet fall — required the mo-
tion of the circumference of the wheel, work-
ng to the befl advantage, or maximum effect.

hen, the velocity of the water if-) ^

fuing on the wheel, 6 feet head, j "'J-+
The velocity of a falling body, hav- \^ ,

I ing 1 6 feet fall, the whole defcent, ) 3 '4

idifference, - r - 13,06 do.

Then as the velocity under a 16 feet fall (32,4
feet) is to the velocity of an overfliot wheel =
%"]() feet, fo is 13,06 feet, to thei6 feet diamet^i'
j/elocity accelerated, which is equal 3,5 feet, to
which add ,577 of 19,34 fee: (being 1 1,1 5 feet) ;
;his amounts to 14,65 feet per fecond, the velo-
:ity of the breaft-v/heel.

Ruh for calcidatlno- tke P.oiver cf any Mill-Seat, * . •

■^ J y Art. 01,

THE only lofs of pov/er fuflained by uiing too
nuch head, in the application of water to turn a
nill-wheel, is from the head producing only half
ts power. Therefore, in calculating the power
>f i6 cubic feet per iecond, on the different ap-
(lications of fig. 25, pi. HL v/e muft add half
he head to the whole fail, and count that fum

feat

108 HYDRAULICS. Chap. Xlh

Art. 61. the virtual perpendicular defcent. Then by thcr

orem IV. (art. 53) multiply tiie weight of the
water per fecond by its perpendicular defcent,
and you have the true meafure of its power.
Simple rule gut to rcduce the rulc to a greater fimplicity,

i^gthe'^power "ict US call cach cuMc foot I, and the rule will be ■
of any mill- fmiply this — Multiply the cubic feet expended
per fecond, by its virtual perpendicular defcent
in feet, and the produft will be a true meafure
of the power per fecond. This meafure mud
have a name, which I call Cuboch ; that is, one
cubic foot of water, multiplied by 1 foot defcent,
is one cuboch, or the unit of power.

EXAMPLES.

|. Given, 16 cubic feet of v/ater per fecond,
to be applied by percullion alone, under 16 feet
head, required the power per fecond.

Then,half i6 = 8X[6 = i28 cubochs,for the mea-
fure of the power per fecond.

2. Given, 16 cubic feet per fecond, to be ap-
plied to a half breaft (jf 4 feet fall and 12 feet
head, required the power. .

Then, half i 2 — 64-4 — 10X16=160 cubochs, for
the power.

3. Given, 16 cubic feet per fecond, to be ap-
plied to a pitch-back or high breaft — fall 10, head
6 feet, required the power.

Then, half 6^:3+ 10=13X16 = 208 cubochs, for
the power per fecond.

4. Given, 16 cubic feet of water per fecond,
to be applied as an overfliot — head 4, fall 12 feet,
required the power.

Then, half 4 = 2 4-i2=i4Xi6 = 224 cubochs, for
the power.

The powers of equal quantities of v/ater i6'
cubic feet per fecond, and equal total perpendicu-
lar defcents by the different applications (land
thus : . • • ■ ■

Ghap. XI L

HYDRAULICS.

1 6 feet head,*
The underiliot, I o fall,

(^128 cubochs power.

(\2 feet head.
The half breaft, \ 4 feet fall,

(^160 cubochs of power.

r6 feet head,
The high breail, < 10 feet fall,

(^208 cubochs of power.

109

Art. 61.

Power of 1 6
cubic feet of
water per fe-
cond, caku-
iated on five
different ap-
plicatons.

The overfliot.

Ditto,

/4 feet head.
< 12 feet fall,
(224 cubochs of power.

feet head.

(2,5

I 13,5 feet fall,

l^i'Tyd cubochs of power.

The lad being the head necefTary to flioot the
water fairly into the buckets, may be faid to be
the beft application. See art. 43.

On thefe fimple rules, and the rule laid down
in art. 43, for proportioning the head and fall,
I have calculated the following table or fcale
of the diiferent quantities of water expend-
ed per fecond, with different perpendicular de-
fcents, to produce a certain povv-er, in order to
prefent at one view to tlie reader the ratio of in-
creafe or decrcafe of quantit}^, as the perpendi-
cular defcent increafes cr decreafes.

* V/ater by percuffioii fpend", ita force on the wheel in the foUov/inp-
time, which is in proportion to the diilance of the fioat-board, and difi'er-
ence of the velocity of the v/ater and v/heel.

If the water runs v^itli double the velocity of the wheel, it will fpend
all its force on the floats, while tiie v/ater runs the diftn.nce of two float-
board5, and while the wheel runs the diflance of one ; therefore tiie wa-
ter need not be kept to ad on the r.dieei from the point of impaft further
than the diitance of about tv/o sloat-hoards.

But if the wheel runs v.'ith two thirds of the velocity of the water, then,
while the v.'heel runs the diftunce of two °oats, and v. 'iile the water would
have ran the dlftance of three floats, it fpends ail its force ; therefore the
water need be kept to ad: on the wheel only the diHance of three floats paft
the point of inipaol:.

If it be continued in much longer it will fail back, and re-acla^^inll the
following bucket and retard the v/hecl.

H Y D R A U L I G S.

Chap, xn,

A TABLE ihewing the quantity of water required \vitl>
different falls, to produce by its gravity, 112 cubochs of pow-
er, which will drive a five feet (lone about 97 revoluti-
ons in a minute, grinding wheat about 5 bulhels iii an
hour.

•^=

5
6

7
8

II
12

13
14
15

^1 1

H 0

S'S'^ <;

1-! n

fj»«5

Hs <» (^ ^:.

ff'!?^

n re
Q- 2.

tual
bein
to a

Ices t

0 ft

0 rt-

^
p

0 ^

< »" p r?

t3- ft 5; fl

n "^3

•1

ira •:+>,-(■ rt

• Cft 0

p a-

►a

►1'

ft P cr

1 O- Q

ex*

112

6,58

37,3

6,22

5^99

22,4

5.6

18,6

5>33

16,

5.1

4,87

12,4
11,2

.^4
25

4,66
4,48

10,2

4.3

9^33

4.15

8,6

3,86

7,46

3.73

'4^

Art, 62. Iheory and Pradiice compared.

I WILL here give a table of 18 mills in actual
praftice out of about 50 that I have taken an ac-
count of, in order to compare theory witli prac-
tice, and in order to afcertain the power requir-

Chap, XII, HYDRAULICS. ni

cd on each fuperficial foot of the acling parts of Art. 62,
the ftone : But I muft premife the following

THEOREMS.

1. To find the circumference by the diameter, „ , ^ ^
Or the diameter by the circumrerence or a circle ingthedr-
p;iven ; fay. As 7 is to 22, fo is the diameter of cumference

' 311(1 aiameter

the ftone to the circumference, /, e. Multiply the
diameter by 22, and divide the produft by 7, for
the circumference ; or, multiply the circumfer-
ence by 7, and divide the produdl by 22, for the
diameter.

2. To find the area of a circle by the diameter Rule for find-
given : As I, fquared, is to ,7854, fo is the fquare '^f^^^^^^^^
of the diameter to the area; /. e. Multiply the

ifquare of the diameter by ,7854, and dedudb l

Ifoot for the eye and you have the area of the

iftone.

I 3. To find the quantity of furface paffed by a Andfurfaca

imill-ftone : The area, fquared, multiplied by the P^^^ "

jrevolutions of the ftone, gives the number of

fuperficial feet, palTcd in a given time.

112 HYDRAULICS. Chap. XII,

Art. 62. Objervations on the folloimng Table of Experiments i

I have afTerted in art. 44, that the head above
the gate of a wheel, on which the "water ad.s by-
its gravity, fhould be llich, as to caiife the water
to ifTue on the wheel, with a velocity to that of
the w^heel as 3 to 2, to compare this with the
following table of experimencs.

1. Exp. Overlliot. Velocity of the water 12,9
feet per fecond, velocity of the wheel 8.2
feet per fecond, which is a little lefs than \ of
the velocity of the water. This wheel received
the water well. It is at Stanton, in Delaware
ftate.

2. Overlliot. Velocity of the water 11,17 feet
per fecond, 4- of v/hich is 7,44 feet, velocity of
the v/heel 8,5 feet per fecond. This received the
v^^ater pretty v/ell. It is at the abovementione.d
place.

. 3* Overfhot. Velocity of the water 12,16 feet

per fecond, velocity of the wheel ie,2 ; throws
oat great part of the water by the back of the
buckets ; ftrikes it and makes a thumping noife.
It is allowed to run too fafb ; revolves fafter than
my theory directs. It is al Brandy wine, in Cela-
ware ftatc.

4. Overfhot. Velocity of the water 14,4 feet
per fecond, velocity of the v/heel 9,3 feet, a little
lefs than ~ of the velocity of tiie water. It re-
ceives the v/ater very well; has a little more
head than adigned by theory, and runs a little j
fafcer ; it is a very good mill, (ituate at Brandy-
wine, in the ftate of Delaware.

6. Underihot. Velocity of the wheel, loaded, i
16, and when empty 24 revolutions per minute,
Vv hich conllrms the theory of motion for under-
ihot wheels. See art. 42.

7. Overfliot. Velocity of the water 15,79 feet,{
velocity of the wheel 7,8 feet ; lefs than ~. of

Zkap. XII, PI Y D R, A U L I C S. 113

he velocity of the water ; motion flower and head ^-.t. 62.
nore than affi_2;ned by theory. The miller faid the
'/heel ran too flow, and would have her altered;and
hat flie worked bcfl when the head was confide-
ably funk. She is at Bnfti, Hartford county,
ilaryland.

8. Overfiiot. Velocity of the water 14,96 feet
iei' fccond, velocity of the wheel 8,8 feet, lefs
han -1, very near the velocity afligned by the
^eory ; but the head is greater, and fne runs
lefl when the head is funk a little ; is counted
lie beft mill ; and is at the fame place with the
ii\ mentioned.

Q, 10, II, 12. Undcrfhot, open wheels. Velo-
ity of the wheels when loaded 20 and 40, and
i^hen empty 28 and 56 revolutions per minute,
^hich is fafler than my theory for the motion of
nderfhot mills. Ellicott's mills, near Baltimore,
1 Maryland, ferves to confirm the theory.

14. Overfliot. Velocity of the water 16,2 feet,
elocity of the wheel 9,1 feet, lefs than i of the
^ater, revolutions of the ftone 114 per minute,
le head near the fame as by theory, the velocity
if the wheel lefs, ilone more. This fhews her to

too high geared. She receives the water well, and
counted a very good mill, fituate at Alexandria,
1 Virginia.

15. Underplot. Velocity of the water 24,3 per
:cond, velocity of the wheel 16,67 feet, more
lan I- the velocity of the v/ater. Three of thefe
lills are in one houfe, at Ftichmond, Virginia —
ley confirm the theory of underfliots, being very
ood mills.

16. Underfliot. Velocity of the Vv^ater 25,63
et per fecond, velocity of the wheel 19,05 feet,
-ing more than 4. Three of thefe mills are in
le houfe, at Peterfourg, in Virginia — they are
CTj good mills, and confirm the theorv. vSee

t. 43.

114 HYDRAULICS. Chap, Xn\

Art. 62. 18. Overfhot wheel. Velocity of the water 11,4

feet per fecond, velocity of the wheel 10,96 feet,,
nearly as faft as the water. The backs of the
buckets ftrike the water, and drive a great partj
over : and as the motion of the ftone is about
right, and the motion of the vv^heel fafter than
affigned by the theory, it (hews the mill to be too
low geared, all which confirms the theory. See
art. 43.

In the following table I have counted the dia-
meter of the mean circle to be two thirds of thei
diameter of the great circle of the Hone, which
is not Uri^ly true. The mean circle to contain
half the area of any other circle muft be ,707
parts of the diameter of the faid circle, or nearly
,7 or 4.

Hence the following theorem for finding the
mean circle of any ftone.

•I

THEOREM. '

Multiply the diameter of the ftone by ,707.
and it produces the diameter of the mean circle.

EXAMPLE.

Given, the diameter of the flone 5 feet, re-
quired a mean circle that fhall contain half itJ
area.

Then, S^'7^7=?>^5'^5 ^^^^ ^^^^ diameter of thef
mean circle- L

Chap, XII, HYDRAULICS. ii

Further Objervations on the following Tabic, Art. 63,

1. The mean power uled to turn the 5 feet Experiments.
ftones in the Experiments (No. i. 7. 14. 17.) is

87,5 CLibochs of the meafure eftablifiied art. 61,
and the mean velocity is 104 revolutions of the
ftones in a minute, the velocity of the mean cir-
cle being 18,37 feet per fecond, and their mean
quantity ground is 3,81b. per minute, which is
3,8 bufhels per hour, and the mean power ufed to
each foot of the area of the ftone is 4,69 of the
meafure aforefaid, done by 36^82 fuperficial feet
palling each other in a minute. Hence wc may
conclude, until better informed,

J. That 87,5 cubochs of power per fecohd will
turn a 5 feet ftone 104 revolutions in a minute,
and grind 3,8 bufhels an hour,

2. That 4,69 cubochs of power is required to
every fuperficial foot of a miil-ftone, when their
mean circles move with a velocity of 18,37 ^'^^'-
perfecond. Or,

3. That for every 36582 feet of .the face of
ftones that pafs each other we may expeft 3,81b.
will be ground, when the ftones, grain. Sec. are
in the ftate and condition, as were the above
ftiones in the experiments.

^ T AB L E of Exper'wients of

rf.

0 fi

t^ rt-

S^£L

re 0

^ «

►0

:* S>

-!1

«^

B 5^

5 0

0) '-^

re fT

•I

>o^

« 0

0 0

a. 2.

• t;

►T3

1-1

8,5

8,2

9,1

«,5

10^2

Note, the aliove tr;ble being large, obliged us to put it on two page^, t
folding of which may fciit a little out of place. In the 3rd, 4th, i3ti'» ^
iStli experiments, there is twopalr of ftones to one watcr-whee^, the gta !
&c. of which, are fnewn by the braces. If the reader will by a rule c!
f:nali lines betv,-een the experimentSj the table will be cafier read.

EJQ-htccn Mills in Prc.dice,

pa
o

S5- "

£.5

i-r

£3

-l

«=

1-1

—

24j 44

2 4; 44

14
23

16
16
16

'7
2T

23| 44

1 4?

26I48

I3I

Itl

99^7
124,8

12 2
122
104
108
126

105
103

73
105

105

114

-113
95

[03
124

^ 2

• ft

^ 1
2 S

? ►o

**^

ft)

£1"

•^

f.in.kup.it

4 10

18,6
13,13

18,63
18,63
38,48

iS,6;

36,63
23,76
18,6

28,3
18,63

4,1
4,34

4,9
5,9

3 "o

teet.

17,3
18,5

16,97
18,6

34594
21514

18,32

.6435

17,971 35741
17,84108091

18,32

36435

95264
49678
39558

74850
5>i5i i7>97l 35741

16,92
16,89
4,67] 19,89
20,75
j 19:9

36435

5= a

>_ 3

5" 3

3;5

2,5

4,5

3,75 I

ii8 liYDRAULICS. Chap, XII,

Art. 63. Obfervations continued from Page 115.

But as we cannot attain to a mathematical ex-
ad;nefs in thofe cafes, and as it is evident that
all the ftones in the faid experiments have been
working witli too little power, becaufe it is.
known that a pair of good bur (tones of 3 feet
diameter, will grind fufficiently well about 125 |
bufhels in 24 hours ; that is 5,2 bufhels in an I
hour, which would require 6,4 power per fc"!
cond — we may fay 6 cubochs per fecond, when 5
feet ftones grind 5 bufhels per hour, for the fake
of fimplicity. Hence we deduce the following |
fimple theorem for determining the fize of the |
ftones to fuit the power of any given feat, or the :■
power required to any fize of a ftone. i

^ -^ THEOREM.

Rule for pro-
portioning the

fize of tiie Find the power by the theorem in art. 61 ; then

thTpowerof ^Jvidc the power by 6, which is the power re-

thefeat. quircd, by i foot, and it will give you the area

of the ftone that the power will drive, to which I

add I foot for the eye, and divide by ,7854, and

the quotient v/iil be the fquare of the diameter :

or, if the power be great, divide by the product of i

the area of any fize ftones you choofe, multiplied

by 6, and the quotient will be the number of

ftones the power will drive : or, if the fize of the

the fize ofttie fto^e be given, multiply the area by 6 cubochs,

ftone. and the product is the power required to drive it.

EXAMPLES, -)

I. Given, 9 cubic feet per fecond, 12 feet per- -
pcndicular, virtual, or eftedive defcent, requir-'
ed the diameter of the ftone fuitablc thereto.

Then, by art. 61, 9X12=108, the power, and
108 ] 6:= 18, the area, and 18 + 1 j ,7854 = 24,2 the
root of v/hich is 4,9 feei, the diameter of the Hon^
required.

Chap, XII. H Y D P^ A U L I C Sw 119

Obfervation 5th. The velocities of the mean Art. 63.
circles of thefe flones in the table are fome below
and fome above 18 feet per fecond, the mean of Proper veio-
them all being nearly 18 feet ^ therefore I con- ftoneVduced
elude that 18 feet per fecond is a good velocity from experi-
in general, for the mean circle of any fized flone. ^aS "

ments in
lice.

Of the different quantity of Surfaces that are pajfed
by Mill-ftones of different diameters with different
■ velocities^

Suppofing the quantity ground by mill-ftones
and power required to turn them to be as the paf-
iingfarfaces of their faces, each fuperficial foot that
palTes over another foot requires a certain power
to grind a certain quantity : Then to explain this
let us premife,

1. The circumference and diameter of circles
are direftly proportional. That is, a double dia-
meter gives a do^uble circumference.

2. The areas of circles are as the fquares of
their diameters. That is, a double diameter gives
4 times the area.

3. The fquare of the diameter of a circle mul-
tiplied by ,7854 gives its area.

4. The fquare of the area of a miil-ftone multi-
plied by its number of revolutions, gives the fur-
face palTed. Confequently,

5. Stones of unequal diameters revolving in
equaf times. Their palling furfaces, quantity
ground, and power required to drive them, will
be as the fquares of their areas, or as the biquadrate
of their diameters. That is, a double diameter
•will pafs 16 times the furfacc.*

6. If the velocity of their mean circles or cir-
cumferences be equal their palling furfaces, quan-

The diameter of a 4 feet flone fquared, multiplied by ,7854 equal
t2,56 its area ; which fquiired is 1 57,75 feet, the furface paiTed at one re-
volution : and 8 multiplied by 8 equal 64, which multiplied by ,7854 equal
50,24 being the area of an 8 feet flone; which fquared is 2524,04 the
the fulface paffed, which furfic'es are as i to 16.

HYDRAULICS. Chap. XII

titv ground, and power required to move them,
will be as the cubes of their diameters.t

7. If the diameters and velocities be unequa;,
their paiEng furfnces and quantity ground, Sec.
v/ill be as the fquares of their areas, multiplied by
their revolutions.

8, If their diameters be equal the quantity of
furfaces pafTed, Sec. are as their velocities or revo-
lutions {imply.

But \ve have been fnppofino- theory and prac^
tice to agree ftritlly v/hich they will by no means
do in this cafe. The quantity ground and power
u fed by large ftones more than by fmall ones will
not be in the ratio affigned by the theory ; be-
caufe the meal having to pafs a greater difcance
through the ftone, is operated upon oftener,
which operations iirafl be ligliter, eli'G it will be
overdone ; by which means large ilones may grind
equal quantities v/ith fmall ones, and with equal
power, and do it with lefs prefTure ; therefore the
flour will be better. ± See art. iii.

From thefe conhderations added to experi-
ments I conclude, that the power required and
quantity ground, will nearer approach to be as
the area of the ftones, multiplied into the veloci-
ty of the mean circles ; or, which is nearly the 1
fame : As the fquares of their diameters. But if
the velocities of their mean circles or circumfer-
ences be equal, then it will be as their area, fim-

On thefe principles I have calculated the fol-
lowing table, ilievving the power required and
quantity ground both by theory, and what I fup-
jjofe to be the nearell pradiice.

f Bec3.ufe the 8 feet ftone will revolve cmly half a'; often as the 4 feet,
therefore their quantity of furface paiTed, &c. can be only half as much
more as it v.-as in the lift cafe ; that is as 8 to i.

t A French author (M. Fabre) fays, that by experiments he has found,
that to produce the beft ilour, a Hone 5 feet diameter fhould revolve be-
tween 48 and and 61 times in a minute. Tkis is much flower than prac-
tice in America, but we may conclude that it is belt to err on the fide of
:1ower than iafter than common practice ; efpecially when the power is too
Hnall for the fize of the ftone.

A TABLE of the area of MiLL-STONES with
their different diameters, deducing i foot for the
eye ; and of the power required to move them
with a mean velocity of i8 feet per fecond, &c.

Note — The reafon wljy the quantity ground in the 7th column, 13 not exaftly as
the cubes of tlie diameter 6f the ilone, and in the 9t:i column not exaaiy as the
fquares of its diameter, is t>-c dedudion for the eye, being equal in eachftone, de-
ftroys the proportion.

The engine of a paper-null, roll 2 feet dIajieteT, 2 feet long, revolving iCo
times in a minute, reqnires equal pow«r with a 4 fee.tilone, grinding 5 bufhek an
hour.

122 HYDRAULICS. Chap. XIL

Art. 63. Having now laid down in art. 61, 62, and 63,

a theory for meafuring the power of any mill-
feat, and for afcertaining the quantity of that
power that mill-ftones of different diameters will

,, require, by which we can find the diameter of

i the ilones t-o fait the power of the feat : and,

having fixed on fix cubochs of that power per
, fecond to every fuperficial foot of the mill-ftone, '

Is as requifite to move the mean circle of the ftoBe |

' 18 feet per fecond, when in the aft of grinding

viath moderate and fufficient i^t^:^ and having al-i
■\ lowed the palling of 34804 feet per minute tol

grind ^Ib. in the fame time, which is the effeft
of the five feet ftone in the table, by which, if
right, we can calculate the quantity that a ftone \
of any fize will grind with any velocity.

I have chofen a velocity of i 8 feet per fecond, S
for the m^an circle of all ftones, which is flower
than common practice, but not too flow for making
good flour. See art. ni. Here will appear the
advantage of large fliones over fmall ones ; for if
we Vv^ill make fmall ftiones grind as faft: as large
ones, we mufl give them fuch velocity as to heat
the meal.
I But I wifli to inform the reader, that the eXpe-

1 riments, from which I have deduced the quantity

of power to eacli fuperficial foot to be fix cubochs,
. ; have not been fnfliciently accurate to.be fully re-
I -'\!ied on ; but it will be eafy for every ingenious
i mill-wright to make accurate experiments to fa-

' tisfy himf elf as to this.

Of Canals Jbr conveying PP^ater to Mills,

IN digging canals we raufl; confider that water
-."will come to a level on its furface, be the form
''6f the bof torn as it" may. If we have once de-

Chap, XIL H Y P R A U L I C S. 123

termined on the area of the fcftion of the canal Art. 64.

neceffary to convey a fufficient quantity of water

to the mill, we need only mind to keep to that Direaions for

, ,.n I 1 digging canals

area m the whole diltance, and need not pay trough rocky
much regard to the depth or width, if there be ground,
rocks in the way. Much expence may be often-
times laved, by making the canal deep where it ,
cannot eaiiiy be got wide enough, and wide where
it cannot cafily be got deep enough. Thus, fup-
pofe we have determined it to be 4 feet deep and
6 feet wide, then the area of its feftion will be
k24. — Let fig. 36, pi. IV. reprefent a canal, the Fig. 36-
Jinc AB the level or furface of the water, CD ^^^^

the fide, EF the bottom, AC the width 6 feet, not^beof
AE the depth 4 feet. Then, if there be rocks equaiwidth

^ r -i • , ^ ^ nor depth la

at G, io that we cannot without great expence ^ii places;

iobtain more than 3 feet width, but 8 feet depth

jat a fmall expence : then 8X3 = 24, the fedion

(required. Again, fuppoib a flat rock to be at H,

fo that we cannot, without great expence obtain ^f-.^'^^f^f^

' o -T , ^ , , of their lection

more than 2 feet depth, but can, with imali ex- muftbethe
pence obtain '12 feet width : then 2X12 = 24, the f^™^""^""^

i7> ri- -I I , -11 ^^^^ than the

lection required ; and the water will come on givenfize.
equally well, even if it were not more than ,5 of
|a foot deep, provided it be proportionably wide.
'One difadvantage however arifes in having canals
|too fhallow in places, becaufe the water in very
'dry feafons, may be too low to rife over them ;
but if the water was aUvays to be of one height,
the difadvantage would be but little. The cur-
irent will keep the deep places open ; light fand
or mud will not fettle in them. This will feein
paradoxical to ibme, but feeing the experiment
may be a faving of expence, it may be worth try-
ing.

124 H Y D R A U L I G S. Chap, XIL

hXt, 65, Of the Size and Fall of Canals.

AS to the fize and fall neceffary to convey any
quantity of water required, to a mill, I do not
find any rule laid down for either. But in order
to eftablifti one let us confider, that the fize de-
pends entirely upon the quantity of water and the^
velocity with which it is to pais : therefore, if|
wc can determine on the velocity, which I "will'|;
fuppofe to be from x to 2 feet per fecond — but ■;
the flower the better, as there will be the lef^-'i
fall loft. We can find the fize of the c^inal by th^,|
following theorem, |

THEOREM, I

jiuie far find- Dividc thc quantity required in cubic feet peF:l
fizl to^conl^y ^ecoiid, by the yelocity in feet per fecond, and J
any quantity the quotient wjll be the area of the fedlion of the "
required. canal. Divide that area by the propofed depth,
and the quotient is the width : or, divide by the
ys^idth, and the quotiei^t is the depth.

PROBLEM. I.

Given, a 5 feet mill ftone to be moved 18
feet per fecond? velocity of its mean circle on a
feat of I© feet virtual or efFedlive defcent, requir
jsd the fize of the canal, w|th a yelopity of i foot
j^er fecond.

Then, by theorem in art. 63 ; The area of the
ftppe 18,(53 fe^t, multiplied by 6 cubochs of pow-
er, is eqiial i;i,78 cubochs for the power (in com-
mon prad:ice fay 112 cubochs) wjiich, divided
by 10 the fall, quotes 11,178 cubic feet required
per fecoiid, %yhich, divided by one, the velocity

Chap, XII, HYDRAULICS. 125

propofed per fccond, quotes 11,178 feet, the area Art. 65.
of the feftion, which divided by the depth pro-
pofed, two feet, quotes 5,58 feet for the width,

PROBLEM. IL

Given, a mill ftonc 6 feet diameter, to be
fjnoved with a velocity of 18 feet per fecond of its
[mean circle, to be turned by an underlhot wheel
ton a feat of 8 feet perpendicular dclcent, requir-
ed the power necefTary per fecond to drive them,
and the quantity of water per fecond, to produce
ifaid power, likewife the fize of the canal to con-
ly^ey the water with a velocity of 1,5 feet per fc-
Icond.

I Then, by art. 61, 8 feet perpendicular defccnt,
ion the underlhot principle, is only =4 feet virtual
pr effeftive defcent : and the area of the ftone by
(the table (art. 67,) =27,27 feet x6 cubochs;=i63,
162 cubochs, for the power per fecond, which di-
vided by 4, the effe6tive defcent =49, (^ cubic feet,
jthe quantity requircid per fecond, which divided
Iby the velocity propofed 1,5 feet per fecond =
|20,45, for the area of the fed:ion of the canal,
jwhich divided by 2,25 feet, the depth of the ca- •

!nal propofed =9,1 feet, the width.*

j As to the fall neceffary in the canal I may ob- of the proper
Iferve, that all the fall fhould be in the bottom ^^" ^" ""*^''
jof the canal and none on the top, whicli Ihould
|be all the way on a level with the water in the
[dam, in order that when the gate islhut down at
the mill, the water will not overflow the banks,
but iland at a \t\t\ with the water in the dam ;
that is, as much fall as there is to be in the whole

* An acre of amill-pbnd contains 43560 cubic feet of water, for every
foot of its depth.

Svppofe your pond contains 3 acres and is 3 feet deep, the« 43560, mul-
tiplied by 3, is equal 130680, which multiplied by 3, is equal 392040 cubic
leet, its contents, which divided by the cubic feet your mill ufes per fe-
coHd (fay 10) is equal 39204 fcconds, or io"hpurs, the time the pond will
keep the mill going.

126
Art. 65.

HYDRAULICS.

Chap.XTh

length of the canal, £0 ipuch deeper mull the ca-
nal beat the mill than at the dam. From obfer-
vations I conclude that about 3 inches to loq \
yards will be fufficient, if the canal be long, but i
more will be better if it be fhort, and the head
apt to run down when water is fcarce, for the ;
fhallower the water the greater mufi: be the velo-J
city, and more fail is required. — A French aurhoi^l
M. Fabre, allows 1 inch to 500 feet. '1

Art. 66^ Of Air-pipes to prevent tight Trunks from burftin^

when filled v.'ith water, ■

W HEN water is to be conveyed under ground,
or in a tight trunk belov/ the furface of the wa-i

Air-pipes ne-
eeffary to pre-
vent tight . ^ . /- 1 1 1 1 ,

trunks from tcr in the rclervoir, to any conhderable length

buriling.

If they are too
fmall they are
worfe than
none.

th^re muft be air-pipes (as they have been called]
to prevent the trunk from burfling. To under-
ftand their ufe let us fuppofe a trunk 100 feet
long, 16 feet below the lurface of the water, tpK
fill which we dravv^ a gate at one end of equal lize >•
with the trunk. Then the water, in palling to thelj
other end acquires great velocity if it meets no
relillance, which velocity is fuddenly to be flop-
ped when the trunk is full. This great column
of water in motion, in this cafe, would Itrike
with a force equal to a folid body of equal weight „
and velocity, the fliock of which would be fuffi-S'
cient to burfi; any trunk that ever was made of
wood. Man)^ having thought the ufe of thefe
pipes to be to let out the air, have made them
too fmall, fo that they would vent the air fall
enough to let the water in with coniiderable ve-
loeityj but would not vent the Vv-ater fall enough
when full, to cheek its motion eafily, in \vhich
cafe they are worf^ than none at all, for if the

Zhap. XIL HYDRAULICS. ^27

lir cannot efcape freely, the water cannot enter Art. 66.
Tcely.

Whenever the air has been comprefled in the Air prevents
Tunk bv the water coming in, it has madeaffreat trunks from

, . -' -r • r ' ^1 1 -lT, • burfting.

jlowing nolle m elcaping through the crevices,
md therefore has been blamed as the caiafe of the
)urfting of the trunk ; whereas it adted by its
daftic principle as a great preventative againll; it.
i^or I do fuppofe, that if we were to pump the air
ill out of a trunk, 100 feet long, and 3 by 3 feet
vide, and let the water in with full force, that
t Would burft, if as thick as a cannon of caft me-
al : becaufe in that cafe there v/ould be 900 cu-
bic feet of water, equal to 562 5olbs. prefTed on by
jhe weight of the atmofphere, with a velocity of
\y feet per fecond, to be fuddenly flopped, the
hock would be inconceivable.*

Therefore I do conclude it beft, to make an
[ir-pipe for every 20 or 30 feet, of the full fize of
he trunk ; but this will depend much on tlie
lepth of the trupk below the furfuce of the re-
ervoir, and many other circumfhances.

Having now faid what was neceffary in order
jhe better to underftand the theory of the power
nd principles of mechanical engines, and water
fting on the different principles on water-wheels,
.hd for the eftablifliing new and true theories of
he motion of the different kinds of water-wheels,

here quote many of the ingenious Smeaton's ex-
)eriments, that the reader may compare them
vith the theories eftablifhed, and judge for him-

* To prevent ice frcni gathering on overfhot wheels when ftanding, the
ater is fhut out of the trunk hj a gate at the canal, and what leaks thro'
is let thro' a hole in the bottom of the trunk : the ^vater is let in again
ritfa full force.

128 H Y D Jl A U L I C S. Chap. XIU \

Art, 67. An experimental Enquiry, read in the Phtlofophical
Society in London, May '^rd and lo, 1759, con^
cerning the Natural Powers of JVater to turn i,
Mills and other Machines, depending on a circu^\
lar Motion, by James Smeaton, F.RiS, )

WHAT I have to communicate on this £tih-
jeft was originally deduced from experiments
made on working models, which I look upon ai|
the beft means of obtaining the outlines in mecha-»
nical enquiries. But in this cafe it is neceffary to i
diftinguifti the circumftances in which a model
differ from a machine in large : otherwife a mo-*
del is more apt to lead us from the truth than to-
wards it. Hence the common obfervation, thatl
a thing may do very well in a model that will^
not do in large. And indeed. though the utmoft*
cii'cumfpeftion be ufed in this way the beft ftruc--'
tare of machines cannot be fully afcertained, but^
by making trials with them of their proper fize;,
It is for this purpofe that though the models re-
ferred to, and the greateft part of the following |
experiments, were made in the year 1752 and!
1 753 yet deferred offering them to the fociety
till I had an opportunity of putting the deduftioii !
made therefrom in real practice in a variety of
cafes and for various purpofes, fo as to be able to
afTure the fociety, that I have found them to an^
fwer.

PART I.

Co?2Cerning Under/hot IVater-'wheels,

Plate Xn is a view of the machine for ;
experiments, on water-wheels, wherein

ABCD is the lower ciftern or magazine for
receiving the water after it has left the wheel,
^nd for Supplying

Chap. XIL HYDRAULICS. 129

D E the upper ciftern or head, wherein the Art. 67.
water being raifcd to any height by a pump, that
height is Ihewn by

FG a fmall rod divided into inches and parts,
witli a float at tlie bottom to move the rod up and
down, as tlie furface of the water rifes and falls.

HI is a rod by which the fluice is drawn, and
flopped at any height required, by means of

K a pin or peg, which fits feveral holes placed
in the manner of a diagonal fcale upon the face of
the rod HI.

GL is the upper part of the rod of the pump
for drawing the water out of the lower ciftern,
in order to raife and keep up the furface thereof
to its defircd height in the head DE, thereby to
fupply the water expended by the aperture of
the fluice.

MM is the arch and handle of the pump, which
is limited in its flroke by

N a piece for flopping the handle from rai/ing
the pifton too high, that alfo being prevented from
going too low, by meeting the bottom of the bar-
rel.

O is the cylinder upon which the cord winds,
bnd which being condu<fled over the pulleys P
land Q^, raifes

R the fcale, into which the weights are put
for trying the power of the water.
t W the beam, which fupports the fcale that is
placed 15 or 16 feet higher than the wheel.

XX is the pump-barrel 5 inches diameter and
I 1 inches long.

Y is the pifton, and

Z is the fixed valve.

G V is a cylinder of wood fixed upon the
pump-rod, and reaches above the furface of the
water, this piece of wood being of luch a thick-
nefs that its feilion is half the area of the pump-
barrel, will caufe the water to rife in the head as

'HYDRAULICS. Chap, XII,

much while the pillon is defccnding as while it
is rifing, and will thereby keep the gauge-rod
FG more equally to its height.

a a Oiews one of the two wires that ferves as
a director to the float.

b is the aperture of the fluice.

ca is a kant-board for kanting the v/ater down
the opening cd into the lower ciilern.

ce is a Hoping board for bringing back the wa-
ter that is thrown up by the wheel.

There is a contrivance for engaging and difcn-
gaging the fcale and weight inflantaneoully from
the wheel, by means of a hollow cylinder on
which the cord winds by flipping it on the fhaft,
and when it is difengaged it is held to its place by
a ralchet-wheel, for without this experiments
could not be made with any degree of exadtnefs.

The apparatus being no'vv^ explained I think it
neceifary to ailign the fenfe in which I ufe the
term Power.

The word power is ufed in praftical mecha-
nics I apprehend to figiiify the exertion of
flrength, gravity, impulie, or prelfure, fo as to
produce motion.

The raifing of a weight relative to the height,
to v/hich it can be railed in a given time, is the
moft proper meafure of power. Or in other
words, if the weight raifed, is multiplied by the
height to v/hich it can be raifed in a given time,
the produdt is the meafure of the power raifing it,
and confequently all thofe powers are equal. But
note all this is to be underflood in cafe of flow or
equable motion of the body raifed, for in quick,
accelerated, or retarded motions, the viflnertia
of the matter moved will make a variation.

In comparing the effefts produced by water-
wheels with the powers producing them ; or in
other words to know v/hat part of the original
power is neceffarily lofl: in the application, we
inuil; previouily knov/ how much of the power is

Chap, XII. HYDRAULICS. 131

fpent in ov^ercoming the friftion of the machinery Art. 67.
and the refiftance of the air, alfo what is the real
velocity of the water at the inftant it ftrikes the
wheel, and the real quantity of water expended
in a given time.

From the velocity of the w^ater at the inftant
that it ftrikes the wheel, given ; the height of
the head produ6live of Inch velocity can be de-
duced, from acknowledged and experienced prin-
ciples of hydroftatics : fo that by multiplying the
quantity or weight of water really expended in a
i given time, by the height of head fo obtained;
j which muft be conlidered as the height from which
{ that weight of water had defcended,in that given
\ time ; we fhall have a produdl equal to the origin-
j al power of the water, and clear of all uncertain-
ty that would arife from the friftion of the water
I in palling fmall apertures, and from all doubts,
ariling frorn the different meafure of fpouting wa-
ters, affigned by different authors.
j On the other hand the fum of the weights raif-
cd by the adtion of this water, and of the weight
required to overcome the fridlion and refiflance of
the machine ; multiplied by the height to w^iich
the weight can be raifed in the time given, the
I produ£l will be the effect of that power ; and the
j proportion of the two products will be the pro-
j portion of the power to the effed: : fo that by
loading the wheel with different weights fucccl-
fively, we lliall be able to determine at what par-
ticular load and velocity of the wheel the effe£t
is a maximum.

To determine the Velocity of the IVater jlrihing the

IV heel,

Firft let the Vvheel be put in motion by the
water, but without any weight in the fcale ; and
let the number of turns in a minute be 60 : novv

132 HYDRAULICS. Chap, XII.

Art. 67. i*^ is evident, that was the wheel free from fric-
tion and refiflance, that 60 times the circumfer-
ence of the wheel would be the fpace through
v/hich the water would have pafFed in a minute ;
with that velocity wherewith it ftruck the
wheel : But the wheel being incumbered with
friftion and refiflance and yet moving 60 turns in
a minute, it is plain that the velocity of the wa-
ter muft have been greater than 60 circumferen-
ces, before it met with the wheel. Let the cord
now be wound round the cylinder but contrary
to the ufual way, and put as rnuch weight in the
fcalc as will without any water turn the wheel
fomewhat fafler than 60 turns in a minute, fup •
pofe 63, and call this the counter-weight, then
let it be tried again with the water affifled by
this counter-weight, the wheel therefore will
nov/ make rnore than 60 turns in a minute, fup-
pofe 64, hence we conclude the water flill exerts
, ibme power to turn the wheel. Let the weight
be increafed fo as to make 644 turns in a minute
without the water, then try it with the water
and the weight as before, and fuppofe it now
makes the fame number of turns with the water,
as without, viz. 64-7, hence it is evident, that in
this cafe the wheel makes the fame number of
turns as it would with the water if the wheel
had no friftion or refiflance at all, becaufe the
weight is equivalent thereto, for if the counter-
weight was too little to overcome the friction,
the water would accelerate the wheel, and if too
great it would retard it, for the water in this cafe
becomes a regulator of the wheel's motion, and
the velocity of its circumference becomes a mea-:
iure of the velocity of the water. I

In like manner in feeking the greatefl product or |
maximum of efrecl ; having found by trials what j
weight gives the greatefl prcdudl, by fimply mul- |
tiplying the Weight in the fcale, by the number \
of turns of the wheel, find what weight in the \

".hap. XIL H Y D R A U Li C S, 133

bale, when the cord is on the contrary fide of ^^ /,y
he cylinder, will caufe the wheel to make, the
ame number of turns, the fame way without
vater ; it is evident that this weight will be
learly equal to all fridtion and reliltance taken
ogether ; and confequently that the weight in
he fcale, with twice * the weight ofthefcale,
.dded to the back or counter-weight, will be
iqual to the weight that could have been raifed
iippofing the machine had been without fridtion
»r reiifhance, and which multiplied by the height
o v/hich it was raifed, the produdt will be the
;reatefl: effect of that power.

7 he ^antiiy of TVater sxp ended is found thus.

The pump was fo carefully made, that no wa-
er efcaped back througli the leatheis, it deliver-
ed the fame quantity each fcroke, whether quick
3r flow, and by afccrtaining the quantity of 12
frokes and couHting the number of ftrokes in a
ninute, that was fufiicicnt to keep the furface of
he water to the fame height, the quantity ex-
Dended was found.

Thefe things v/ill be farther illuftrated by go-
.ng over the calculations of one lt;t of experi-
iients.

^pecinitn of a Set of Experiments.

The fiuice drawn to the ifl hole.

The water above the floor of the fiuice 30 inch.

Strokes of the pump in a minute, 39^

Thf head raifed by j 2 flrokes, - 2 i inch.

The wheel raifed the empty fcale and ) „
made turns m a miaute, j

* The \73ight of the fcale makes part of the livelghtboth ways, viz. both
>f the weight and counter-weight.

134 HYDRAULICS. Chap. XZ/.j

Art. 67. With a counter-weight of lib. 8 oz. it "^ o !

made j ^

Ditto, tried with water, - %6

No. lbs- oz.

1 4:0

2 5:0

3 6=0

4 7:0

5 . 8 • o

6 9=0

7 10 : ?

8 II :o

9 1 2 : p * ceafed working.

Counter-weight for 30 turns without water 2
oz. in the fcale. j

N. B. The area of the head was 105,8 fquarej
inches, weight of the empty fcale and pulley io|
ounces, circumference of the cylinder 9 inches,|
and circumference of the water-wheel 75 do. j

turns in a min.

produft.

,180

210

2I7i

33?

236^

240 max.

a6x

238i

220

i6f

i8ii

Reduction of the above- Set of Experiments ,

The circumference of the wheel y^ inches,
multiplied by 86 turns, gives 6450 inches for the
velocity of the water in a minute, -5V of which!
will be the velocity in a fecond, equal to 107,5

* When the wheel moved fo flow as not to rid the water fo faft as fuppli
ed by the fluice, the accumulated water falls back upon the aperture, anc
the wheel immediately ceafes moving.

Note — This note of the author argues in favour of drawing the gate neai
ths floats.

Zhap. XIL HYDRAULICS. 135

inches, or 8,96 feet, which is due to a head of 15 Art. 67.
inches,* and this we call the virtual or eifedive
head.

The area of the head being 105,8 inches, this
multiplied by the weight of water of one cubic
inch, is equal to the decimal of ,579 of the ounce
avoirdupois, gives 61,26 ounces for the weight of
IS much water as is contained in the head upon
Due inch in depth, ^'-^ of which is 3,831b. this mul-
:iplied by the depth 21 inches gives 80,431b. for
;he value of I2 flrokes, and by proportion 394-
the number made in a minute) will give 264,7
b. the weight of water expended in a minute.
1 Now, as 264,71b. of water may be conlidered
ls having defcended through a fpace of 15 inches
n a minute, the produdl of thefe two numbers
;970 will exprefs the power of the water to pro-
luce mechanical effects ; which are as follows.

The velocity of the wheel at the maximum as
ppears above, was 30 turns in a minute ; which
inultiplied by 9 inches, the circumference of the
cylinder, makes 270 inches : but as the fcale was
jiung by a pulley and double line, the weight was
inly raifed half of this, viz. 135 inches.

rhe weio;ht in the fcale ) on

^ .u • r 81b. o oz.

at the maximum j

i/Veiffht of the fcale and) ,,

n )■ olb. 10 oz.

j^ pulley, )

pounter-weiffht, fcale,) ,,

I and pulley; | °"'- '^°^-

fum of the refinance 91b. 6oz.or9, 3751b

I Now, as 9,3751b. is raifed 135 inches, thefe
jwo numbers being multiplied together produces
!266, which exprelTes the effeft produced at a

I * This is determined by the common maxim of hydroftatics ; that the
|rlocity of fpouting waters is equal to the velocity that a heavy body would
j quire in falling from the height of the refervoir ; and is proved by the
jfuig of jetJ, to the height of their refervoirs nearly.

1^6 HYDRAULICS. Chap, XI/;

1
Art. 67- itiaximum : fo that the proportion of the power ';

to the efie6t is as 3970:1266, or as 10:3,18.

But though this is the greateft fingle efFed: pro-;
ducible from the power mentioned, by the im-j
puHe of the water upon an underfhot wheel ; yeti
as the whole power of the water is not exhaufted'
thereby, this will not be the true ratio between]
the power and the fum of all the eftefts produci-j
bie therefrom: for the water muft necefTarilyj
leave the wheel with a velocity equal to the;
circumference, it is plain that fome part of the'
power of the water muft remain after leaving]
the wheeL

The velocity of the wheel at a maximum is 3O'
turns a minute, and confequently its circumfer-
ence moves at the rate of 3,123 feet per fecond,!
which anfwers to a head of 1,82 inches : this be*
ing multiplied hy the expence of water in a mi-
-nute, viz. 264, jlb. produces 481 for the power
remaining, this being deducted froip the originaij
poM^er 3970, leaves 3489 which is that part ol
the power that is fpent in producing the effed
1266, fo that the power fpent 3489 is to its
greatCiL efFeft 1266, as 10:3,62, or as 11:4.

The velocity of the water ftriking the wheel
86 turns in a minute, is to the velocity at a max-
imum ^o turns a minute, as 10:3,5 or as 20 to 7,
io that the velocity of the wheel is a little more
than i- of the velocity of the water.

The load at a maximum has been fliewn to be;
equal to 91b. 6 oz. and that th^ wheel ceafcd mov-i
ing with i2lb. in the fcale : to which if the weight!
of the fcale be added, viz. ]o oz.* the proportion!
will be nearly as 3 to 4, between the load at the!
maximum and that by which the wheel is flop-i
ped.t j

* The refiftance of the air in this cafe ceafes, and the friction is not aid
ded, as I2lb. in the fcale was fufficient to flop the wheel after it had be.ei
in full motion, and therefore fomewhat more than a counter-balance for the
irapulfe of the water.

t I may here obferve, that it is probable, that if the gate of the flnice hai
been drawn as near the fioat-boards as poffibie, (as is the praftice in Ame

Chap, XIL HYDRAULICS. 137

' It is fomcAivhat remarkable, that though the ve-^ Art. 67.
locity of the wheel in relation to t!he water turns
out greater than 1-3 of the velocity of the water^
yet the impaife of the water in cafe of the maxi-
mum is more than double of what is alTigned by
theory ; that is, inftead of 4 of the column it is
nearly equal to the whole column.*

It mult be remembered, therefore, that in thd
|>refent cafe, the wheel was not placed in an opert
river where the natural current after it has com-
municated its impulfe to th^ float, has room on all
^des to efcape, as the theory fuppofes ; but in a
Conduit or race, to which the float being adapted,
the water cannot otherwife efcape than by mov-
f[ng along with the wheel. It is obfervable, that
^ wheel working in this manner asfoon as the wa-
iter meets the float, it receiving a fudden check
[rife s up againft the float, like a wave againft a fix-
|sd object, infomuch, that when the fheet of wa-
iter is not a quarter of an inch thick, before it meets
(the float, yet this flieet will aft upon the whole
jAirface of a float, whofe height is three inches ;
ponfequf ntly, was the float no higher than the
|:hicknef3 of the flieet of water, as the theory al-
ib fuppofes, a great part of the force would be;
toft by the water dafliing over the float.
} In confirmation of what is already delivered'^.
It have adjoined the following table, containing
jlhe refult of 27 experiments made and reduced in
j.he manner above fpecified. What remains of
!;he theory of underflio-t wheels, will naturally
i'ollov/ from a comparifon of the d.iflerent expe-
j'inicnts together.

ica, where water is applied to a(5l by impulTe alone) that the wheel would
j.ave continued to move until loaded with i i-2 times the weightofthe max-
imum load, viz. 9lb. 6 oz. multiplied by I i-2 is equal to i4lb. r o-z- Then
jt would have agreed with the theory eftabliflied art 4r. This perhaps el^
leaped the notice of our author.

I * Thi'? obfervation of the author I think a ftrong confirmation of the truths
jf the theory eftablifhed art. 41 ; where the maximum velocity is made to
('6,577 parts of the velocity of the water, and the load to be 2-2; the greateft
|3ad : For if the gate had been drawn near the float";-^ the greateft load
jv'ould probablv have been I4'.b. i oa.. or as 3 to 3, of the -maximum load.

I " ' 'I' "

A TABLE of Experiments^ No, i.

{t\^.

o g._

-1

G
o

C-

iin j inchs.

i!33|88i5,8j
2j3o86|i5,

4ji4;78|i2,3
5 2i;75ii,4
8 ho 9,95

13
14
15

2 0
2 I

2 6

;268

I
9 5
6|48

9 6o
6 50

6,50

21 3

8,54
7^29
5,47
3,55

27,7

25,9

23,5

23,4

19
16

14,2

13,5
10,5
9,6
8,0
6~,37
4,25

10,5

8,75

6,8

4,7

!b.oz.;lb. oz.' lbs.

30,75

25
25
23
2 I

29
26,75
24,5
23,5

9,3 27
6,8 26,25

4,7 i24,5

7,2927,3
5,0324,6

5,03|26
1._

9:275

4358
61264,73970
243 3329
235 2890

14 12439
199 I1970

178,5
161

134
114

1524
1173

733
404,7

141 1

1266

1044
901,4
735,7
56r,8

442,5
328

2i3o7
117

342
297
285
14:277
14I234
13:201
4.167,

4 ij

4890

4009

2993
2659
1872
r28o
712

6357
330

0255
228

359

332

3
6

8
6

262

355

307

3748
2887

^34
1064

1505
1223
Q75
774
549
390
212

r20t
878
541
317

3338

2257
1231

2588

1544

4 9360 1811

roo6
686
385

783
456

0:3,24
0:3,2 I
0:3,15
0:3,12
0:3,02
0:2,85

0:2,9
0:2,8

0:2,9
0:2,82

o:3;07

0:3,0

0:3,25

0:2,92

0-2,94

0:3,05

ri- O'

10:3,4
10:3,5
10:3,4

tO:3,55

fO:3,45

10:3,36

10:3,6

10:3,77

10:3,65

10:3,8

10:3,66

10:3,62

10:3,6

10:3,62

'0:3,97
ro:4,i

'0:7,74

10:7,4

10:7,5

'o:7,5S|

'0:7,3^ i

10:8,02

10:8,3

ro:9,r-

10:9,1 *

io:9>3

10:7,9;
Io:S,05
10:8,7^

10:9,

10:8,7

10:9,5

0-2, 9«"o:4,55 10:9,

0:3,23
0:3,05
o:3iOi

10:4,02
r 0:4,05
'0:4,22

0:2,99.10:4,9

0:3,02^10:3,97
0:3,04:10:4,52
o:3,i3!io:5,i

10:8,05
10:8,1
10:9,1
rO;9,6

10:9,17

iO:9,'5

10:9,35

0:3)0310:4,5510:9,45
0:2,92 10:4,9 10:9,3

5'34 10:2,9510:5,2 10:9,25

II 12 1 13

Chap, XII, HYDRAULICS. 139

* Art. 67,

Maxims and Obfervations deduced from the forego-
ing Table of Experiments,

Max. I. That the virtual or effedlive head be-
ing the fame, the efFe,6t will be nearly as the
quantity of water expended.

This will appear by coiuparing the contents of
the columns 4, 8 and 10, in the foregoing fets of
experiments, as for

Example /. taken from No, 8 and 25, viz ,

No.

virtual head.

Water expended.

Effea

7,29

161

3^8

7,29

355

785

Now the heads being equal if the effefts are
proportioned to the water expended, we fliall
have by maxim I. as i6i:355::328:723 ; but 723
falls ihort of 785, as it turns out in experiment,
according to No. 25 by 62. The effect therefore of
No. 25, compared with No. 8, is greater than
according to the prefent maxim, in the ratio of
i4to 13.

The foregoing example with four fimilar ones
are feen at one view in the following table.

* If the true maximum velocity of the wheel be ,577 of the velocity of the
water, and the true maximum load be 2-3 of the whole coluian, as fhewn in
art. 42 ; then the eiFecT: will be to the power in the ratio, of lOO to 38, or as
10 to 3,8, a little more than appears by this table of experiments, in column
9 and 10; the difference is owing to the difadvant'ageous application of the
water on the wheel m the model.

A TABLE of Experiments, No, 2.

"^^
j^%

''^\

Proportional va-
riation,

Variation-

O
<

o
u

EfFea.

00
CO

00 U-^
C^ 00
on t\

v-i SO

xK>o

Vr^^sO

I— I

so
CO

I— <
CO

^ 00

CO CO

so
CO

O -^
u^ eo

Expence of
water.

Virtual head,

No. iable 1.

Examples.

so Lr^

M CO

Cs OS

00 »j^

M CO

o" o

VT) CO

C< CO

00 00

so so

00 c<

c< so

^s^s

i\ o

O so
CO CO

CO CO

o^ o^

00 IJ^

CO 00

Ky^y^U

C< CO

c^ cq

C^ M

sO |\

^/Y%->

^./yx;

\y^y\j

.—1

4-)

Chap. XIL HYDRAULICS. ^41

By this table of experiments it appear? that Art. 67,
fome fall Ihort, and others exceed the maximuRi,
and all agree as near as can be expected in an af-
fair where fo many different circumftanccs are
concerned ; therefore we may conclude the max-
im to be true.

Max. II. That the expence of the water be-
ing the fame, the effect will be nearly as the
height of the virtual or effective head.

This alfo will appear by comparing the con-
tents of columns 4, 8 and 10 in any of the fets of
p?cperiments.

Example /, of No, 2 and No, 2^.

No. Virt. head. Expence. Effeft.

2 J5 2^4,7 1266

24 4,7 2<$2 385

Now as the expenccs are not quite equal, wc
muft proportion one of the effects accordingly,
|;hus :

By maxim I. 262:264,7:: 385:389
And by max. II. 15: 4,7::i266:397

Difference 8

t
The effect therefore of No. 24, compared with

J4o. 2, is lefs than according to the prefent max-
im in the ratio of 49 : 50.

Max. III. that the quantity of water expend- '
cd being the fame, the effect is nearly as the
fquare root of its velocity.

This will appear by comparing the contents of
columns 3, 8 and 10, in any fet of experiments ;
as for

Example I, of No, 2 with No, 24, vh*

No.

Turnsinamia.

Expence.

Effeft

264,7

1266

202,

i42 HYDRAULICS. Chap. XII.

Art. 67. ''^The velocity being as the number of turns, v/e
fhall have

By maxim I. 262: 264,7 :: 385:389

And by max. III.-! ^ ^ >-:; 1266:^04
^ (7396:2304 j ^^

DiiFerence 5

The eiFeft of No. 24, compared with No. 2, i\
lefs than by the prefent maxim in the ratio qI
78:79.

Max. IV. The aperture being the fame, tl
efFed: will be nearly as the cube of the velocity
of the water.

This alfo will appear by comparing the con-(|
tents of columns 3, 8 and 10, as fpr

Example of No. i and No. iQ,viz..

No. Turns. Sixpence. Effeft.

I 88 275 141 I

10 42 JI4 117

Lemma. Jt muft here be obferved, that, ifil
water palFes out of an aperture in the fame fee
tion, but with different velocities, the expencei
will be proportional to the velocity ; and there-
fore converfely, if the expence is not proportion-
al to the velocity, the fedtion of water is not the
fame.

Now comparing the water difcharged with the
turns of No. land 10, we Ihall have 88:42 ::275:
131,2 ; but the water difcharged by No. 10 is on-
ly 1 1 41b. therefore, tho' the fluice was drawn to the
fame height in No. 10 as in No. i : yet the fec-
tion of the water pafling out, was lefs in No. 10 j
than No. i, in the proportion of 114 to 131,2,
confequently had the effeftive aperture or feftion
of the water been the fame in No. lo as in No. i, j
fo that 131,21b. of water had been difcharged, in-
ftead of r 1 41b. the effedl would have been increaf-
cd in the fame proportion ; that is,

Zhap, XIL HYDRAULICS. 143

By lemma 88 : 42 ::275: 131,2 Art. 67.

By maxim I. 114 : 131,2 ::ii7:i34,5

^"'"'y'°''^-'y-{68i47r=74obr}=='^""^3,5

Difference 19

The efFedl therefore of No. 10, compared with
J*4o. I, is lels than it ought to be, by the prefent
naxim, in the ratio of 7:8.

OBSERVATIONS.

Observ. ift. On comparing column 2 and 4,
table I, it is evident, that the virtual head bears
bo certain proportion to the head of water, but
that when the aperture is greater or the velocity
[)f the water ifluing therefrom lefs, they approach
bearer to a coincidence : and confequently, in the
[large opening of mills and fluices, where great
!][uantities of water are difcharged from moderate
heads, the head of water and virtual head deter-
[jiined from the velocity will nearer ^gree, as ex-
perience confirms.

I Observ. 2nd. Upon comparing the feveral
jproportions between the powers and effedls in co-
lumn 1*1 th, the moft general is that of 10 to 3 ; the
bxtreams are 10 to 3,2 and 10 to 2,8 ; but as it is
jjbfervable, that where the quantity of water or
|:he velocity thereof is great, that is, where the
jaower is greatefl, the 2nd term of the ratio is
^reateft alfo, we may therefore well allow the
DPoportion fublifting in large works as 3 to i.

Observ. 3rd. The proportion of velocities
)etvveen the water and wheel, in column 12 are
:ontained in the limits of 3 to 1 and 2 to i ; butas
he greater velocities approach the limits of 3 to
[, and the greater quantity of water approach to

HYDRAULICS* Chap. Xlh

that of 2 to 1, the beft general proportion will be:
that of 5 to 2.*

O&SERT. 4thi On comparing the numbers ii*.
column 13, it appears^ that there is no certain ra*
tio between the load that the wheel will carry at
its maximum, and what will totally ftopit; but
that they are contained within the limits of 20 to
iQ and of 20 to 15; but as the effed approaches
neareft to the^ratioof 20 to 15 Or of 4 to 3, wheuKj
the power is greatefl, whether by increafe of ve-i
locity or quantity of water, this feems to be the|
moft applicable to large works : but as the load |
that a wheel ought to have in order to work to j
the beft advantage, can be affigned by knowing the ;
effed it ought to produce, and the velocity itii
ought to have in producing it, the exa£l know-tj
ledge of the greateft load that it will bear is of|
lefs confequence in pra£bice.t \

It is to be noted, that in almoft all of the exam-|
pies under the three laft maxims (of the four pre-.
ceding) the effect of the leffer power falls fhort of
its due proportion to the greater, when compared
by its maxin*. And hence, if the experiments
■ are taken ftrifcly, we muft infer that the effedts
increafe and diminish in an higher ratio than thofe
maxims fuppofe 5 but as the deviations is not ve-

* I may here obferve, that our friend Smeaton may be wrong in his con-
clufion, that the beft general ratio of the velocity of the water to that of the
wheel w^ill be as 5 to 2 ; becaufe, we may obferve, that in the firft experi -
ment, where the virtual head was 15,85 inches, and the gate drawn to the
lit hole, the ratio is as lO : 3,4. But iiWihe laft experiment, where the head
is as 5,03 inches, and gate drawn to the 6th hole, the ratio is as 10 : 5,2 ;
and that the 2nd term of the ratio increafes gradually, as the headdecreaf-
es, and quaatlty of water increafes : therefore we may conclude, that in
the large openings of mills, that the ratio may approach to 3 to 2 • which will
agree with the praftice and experiments of many able mill-wrights of Ame-
rica, and many experiments I have made on mills. And as it is better to
give the wheel a velocity too great than too flow, I conclude, the wheel of
an underlhot mill muft have nearly 2-3 of the velocity of the water^ to pro-
duce a maximum efieft.

t Perhaps the author is here again deceived by the imperfeftion of the
model ; for had the water been drav^^n clofe to the float, the load that would
totally ftop the wheel would always be equal to tli"- column of water afting
on the wheel. See the note page 70. The friftion of tlie fliute and air de--
ftroyed great part of the force of his fmall quantity of water-

Chap, Xll HYDRAULICS. 145

ry confiderable, the greateft being about 1 of the Art. 67.

j quantity in queftion, and as it is not eafy to make

j experiments of fo compound a nature, with abfo-

( hite precifion, we may rather fuppofe that the

! lefler power is attended with fome fridion, or

works under fome difadvantage, not accounted

for : and therefore we may conclude that thefe

maxims will hold very nearly, when applied to

works in large.

After the experiments abovementianed were
tried, the wheel which had 24 floats was reduc-
ed to 12, which caufed a diminution in the eifeft
on account of a greater quantity of water efcap-
|ing between the floats and the floor, but a circu-
lar fweep being adapted thereto, of fuch a length
that one float entered the curve before the pre-
jceding one quitted it, the eflett came fo near to
jthe former, as not to give hopes of increafing the
eff^ed: by increafing the number of floats paft 24,
in this particular wheel.

P A R, T II.

Concerning Over/hat JVheels, Art* 68.

IN the former part of this effay, we have coni'i-
dered the impuh'e of a confined llream, ading on
underftiot wlicels ; we now proceed to examine
the power and application of water, w^hen ading
by its gravity on overfliot wheels.

It will appear in the courfe of the following de-
diuflions, that the efFcfb of the gravity of de-
fcending bodies, is very diflerert from the effedt
of the ftrokc of fuch as are non-elaftic, though ge-
nerated by an equal mechanical power.

HYDRAULICS. Chap, X//.

The alterations of the machinery already de-
fcribed,to accommodate the fame for experiments
on overftiot wheels, were principally as follows.

Plate XII. The fluice I b being fliut down, the
rod H I was taken off. The underfhot water-
wheel was taken off the axis, and inflead thereof
an overfhot wheel of the fame fize and diameter
was put in its place. Note, this wheel was 2
inches deep in the fhroud or depth of the bucket,
the number of buckets was '^6,

A trunk for bringing the water upon the wheel if
was fixed according to the dotted lines fg, the |
aperture was adjulled by a fhuttle which alfo |
clofed up the outer end of the trunk, when the
water was to be flopped.

■f::

Chap, XII. HYDRAULICS.

Specimen of a SET of EXPERIMENTS,

Head 6 Inches — 14 1-2 ftrokes of the Pump in
' a minute, 12 ditto =80 Ib.^' weight of the
. fcale (being wet) 10 1-2 ounces.
Counter weight for 20 turns befides the Scale,
3 ounces.

No. wt.in the fcale. turns. produd. oblervations.

I o 60 p threw moft part of

5> I 56 >the water out of the

3 2 52 J wheel.

4 3 49 147 7 received the water
/; 4 47 188 3 more quietly.

6 5 45 225

7 6 422 ^55

8 7 41 287
o 8 q8x 308

10 9 36^ 320T

11 ,10 35i 355^

12 II 32^ 3^°a

13 * 12 31^ 375,

14 13 28i 3702

15 14 27i 3^5

16 15 26 39°

17 16 24-1 392

18 17 22f 3864

19 18 2I| 39^f

^° '9 2oi 394T ? ^^^j^^^.

21 20 19I 395 3

22 21 i8i 383i ^ ,. .
2^ 22 18 396 worked irregular.

24 23 overfet by its load.

* The fmall difference in the value of 12 ftrokes of the pump from the
former experiments, was owing to a fmall difference in the length of the
ftroke, occafioned by the warping of the wood.

Art. 68. ,- 4.<

H Y D li A U L I .C S. Chap. XJI.

Redndioii of the preceding Specimeiu

In thefe experiments the head being 6 inches,
and the height of the wheel 24 inches, the whole
defcent will be 30 inches : the expence of water
was 144 ftrokes of the pump in a minute, where-
of 12 contained 8olb. therefore the water ex-
pended in a minute, was p6-^-lb. which multiplied
by 30 inches, gives the power =2900.

If we take the 20th experiment for the maxi-
mum, we Ihall have 204 turns a minute, each of
which raifed the weight 44 inches, that is 93,37
inches, in a minute. The weight in the fcaie
was iplb. the weight of the fcale loj. oz. the
counter-weiglit 3 oz. in the fcale, which with
the weight of the fcale 104 oz. makes in the
whole 20 lib. which is the whole refiftancg or
load, this multiplied by 93,37 makes 1914 for
the effect.

The ratio therefore of the power and effe(n:
will be as 2900:1914, or a§ io;6,6 or as 3 to 2
nearly.

But if vv^e compute the power from the height
of the wheel only, we have 96-iib.X24 inches 15:
2320 for the power, and this will be to the effett
as 2320:1914 or as 10:8, 2, or as 5 to 4 nearly

The redu<n:ion of this fpecimen is fet down
in No. 9 of the following table, and the rei]:
were deduced from a limilar fet of c^^perimentSj
feduced in the fame manner.

ABLE III. — 'Contaiiiing the refnlt of i6 fcts of Expe-
riments on Overfhot-wheels.

inc.

27
27
27

4(2 7

lb.

30
7^4

734
964

133
"233
333

435

35
35

9.0
961

^134

564
1064

1464

1 20

1634

lbs.

19 1 64

164144

204 1 24

^3
o

2o4ji34

21 '![ -^-i

810
1530

1710

!:x)

720

1360
1360

J 524

54;2c7o;[84o

1060
1 167

1-43
I 500

184'! 74U090 1704

204'2 04 2755 2320

20 194

20i-20-'
2 1 23,^

204131

23 2;-^

19416-:

214-2 t,-'

~ T ^ .1 2

25 |26^
4 I 5

2700
2900
340c

187c

>5--
484c

^275
420c

572^

216c
2320
272 c

136c
256

3520

1 560

10
IP
10
10

6,9

7,6
7,3
7,3

1476:10
i868'io

6.8

1755/0 • 6,3
191410 : 6,6'
2 22l|lO : 6,5'

1230 10 : 6,6
2i53'io : 6,1
2846'io : 5,9

1466 lo : 6,5

28802467110 : 5,9

^,02 4'2oSl!lO : c:^i

^924

7,7

7,8

8,^

8,4
8,1

o :8,i
o :8,2
o : 8,2

o : 9
o : 8,4
o : 8,

o : 9,4
o : %X
o : y,6

o ^

" ^.
00 c

O
GO

:*55i-

I50 HYDRAULICS. Chap. XIT,

Art. 68.

OBSERVATIONS AND DEDUCTIONS

FROM THE FOREGOING E X PER. I ME N T S.

I, Concerning the Ratio between the Power and EffcCi,

of Over/hot IVJieels, i

. The efte£live power of the water niuft be rec-
koned upon the whole defcent, bccaufe it mufl be
raifed to that height in order to be in a conditioji
of producing the fame effeft a fecond time.

The ratios between the powers fo eftimated^;
and the effects at the maxinium, deduced from the;;
feveral fets of experiments are exhibited at one,
view in column (^ of table III ; and hence it ap«]!
pears, that thofe ratios differs from that of lo toi
y^6 to that of lo to 5,2 ; that is, nearly from 4 to!
3 to 4:2. In thofe experiments where the headf;
of water and quantities expended are leaft, the
proportion is nearly as 4-to 3, but where the headf
and quantities are greateft, it approaches nearer tc
that of 4 to 2, and by a medium of the whole
the ratio is that of 3:2 nearly. We have feen bC'
fore in our obfervations upon the effects of under-
foot wheels, that the general ratio of the powcji'
to the effedt when greateft, was as 3:1. The ef
feci, therefore of overfliot wheels, under the fam(
circumftances of quantity and fail, is at a medi-
um double to that of the underfhot: asd a con
fequence thereof, that non-elaftic bodies whei
adting by their impulfe or collifion, com.municat'
onl)^ a part of their original pov/er ; the othe
part being fpent in changing their figure, in con,
fequence of the ftroke. * '

The powers of water computed from thj
height of the wheel only, compared v/ith the el!

* Thefe obfervations of the author agree with the theory art. 4i' — 42- I m:
add that non-elaftic bodies, when acting by impuife or collifien commtol
cn.te only half of their ©riginal power, by the laws of motion.

Zhap. XIL HYDRAULICS. 151

^efts as in column 10, appear to obferve a more Art. 68.
:onftant ratio : for if we take the medium of each
:lafs, which is fet down in column \ \ . we fhall
ind the extreme to differ no more than from the
•atio ofio:8,i to that of 10:8,5, and as the fc-
;ond term of the ratio gradually increafes from
^,1 to ^^^ by an increafe of head from 3 inches to
ti, the cxcefs of 8,5 above 8,1 is to be imputed
[0 the fuperior impulfc of the water, at the head
l)f II inches, above that of 3 inches, fo that if wc
[educe 8,1 to 8, on account of the impulfe of the
\ inch head, we lliall have the ratio of the power
[omputed upon the height of the wheel only, to
he efFeft at a maximum, as 10:8 or as 5:4 nearly.

nd from the equality of the ratio, between pow-
r and effeft, fubfifting where the conftruftions
re fimilar, we muft infer that the effefts as well
s the powers, are as the quantities of water and
erpendicular heights, multiplied together re-

edtively.

I. Concerning the mojl proper Height of the Wheel
in Proportion to the luhole dcjcent,

I We have already feen in the preceding obferv-
ition, that the effeft of the fame quantity of wa-
2r, defcending through the fame perpendicular
Dace, is double, when adting by its gravity upon
n overfhot wheel, to what the fame produces
^hen adling by its impulle, upon an underihot.
: alfo appears that by increahng the head from

to II inches, that is, the whole defcent, from
7 to 35, or in the ratio of 7 to 9 nearly, the ef-

dl is advanced no mere than in the ratio of 8,1

> 8,4; that is, as 7:7,26, and confequently the
icreafe of the eifeft is not ^ of the increafe of the

rpendicular height. Hence it follows that the
igher the wheel is in proportion to the whole
sfcent, the greater will be the effeft ; becaufe it

pends lefs upon the impulfe of the head, and

152 HYDRAULIC S. Chap, XII.

Art. 68. more upon the gravity of the water, in the buck-
ets : and if we confider how obliquely the water
illuing- from the head ntuft flrike the buckets, wd
fhail not be at a lofs t6 account for the little ad-
vantage that arifes frofti the impulfe thereof;
and fhall immediately fee of how little confe-
quence this impulfe is to the effed of an overfhot
v/heel. However, as every thing has its limits, .
fo has this : for thus much is defirable,- that the ■
v/ater fhould have fomewhat greater velocity,
than the circumference of the wheel, in coming
thereon : otherwife the v/heel will not only be re-
tarded by the buckets llriking the water, but
thereby dafhing a part of it over, fo much of th^ '
power is lofl. i

The velocity that the circumference of thtji
wheel ought to have being known, the head re4)
quifite to give the water its proper velocity is ea4
lily found, by the common rules of Hydroftatics,
and will be found tnuch lefs than what is common-
ly pradifed.

HI. Ccncerning the Velocity of the Circumference
of the TVheel in order to produce the greatejl Ef'

fea.

If a body is let fall freely from the furface of the
head to the bottom of the defcent, it will take a
certain time in falling ; and in this cafe the whole
udion of gravity is fpent in giving the body a cer-
tain velocity : But, if this body in falling is made
to aflt upon fome other body, fo as to produce a
mechanical effedt, the falling body will be retard-^
ed ; bccaufe, a part of the adtion of gravity is then
fpent in producing the effeft, and the remainder
only giving motion to the falling body ; and there-
fore, the flower a body defcends, the greater will
be the portion of the a£lion of gravity applicable
to the producing a mechanical efreft. Hence we

Chap, XII. HYDRAULICS. 15

are led to this general rule, that the lefs the velo- Art. 68.
city of the wheel, the greater will be the eiFe£t
thereof. A confirmation of this doftrine, toge-
ther with the limits it is fubjedl to in pradlice,
may be deduced from the foregoing fpecimen of a
fet of experiments.

From thefe experiments it appears, that when

the wheel made about 20 turns in a minute, the

effeft was near upon the grcateft ; when it made

30 turns, the effeft was diminilhed about -^-^ part 5

but, that when it made 40, it was diminifhed a-

I bout 4 ; when it made lefs than 184, its motion

I was irregular ; and when it was loaded fo as not

I to admit its making i8 turns, the wheel was over-

j powered by its load.

I It is au advantage in practice, that the velocity
[of the wheel fliould not be diminifhed farther than
what will procure fome folid advantage in point
j of power ; becaufe, as the motion is flower, the
I buckets muft be made larger ; and the wheel be-
ing more loaded with water, the ftrefs upon every
1 part of the work will be increafed in proportion :
jthe beft velocity for practice therefore will be
jfuch, as when the wheel here ufed made about 30
I turns in a minute ; that is, when the velocity of
I the circumference is a little more than 3 feet in a
fecond.

Experience confirms, that this velocity of 3 feet
in a fecond, is applicable to the highell overfhot
wheels as well as the lowefl ; and all other parts
of the work being properly adapted thereto, will
produce very nearly the greatefl efFed pofTible.
However, this alfo is certain, from experience,
that high wheels may deviate further from this
rule, before they will loofc their power, by a gi-
ven aliquot part of the whole, than low ones can
be admitted to do : for a wheel of 24 feet high may
move at the rate of 6 feet per fecond without loof-

154 HYDRAULICS. Chap, XII,

Art. 68. ing any confiderable part of its power : and, oil
the other hand, I havefeen a wheel of 33 feet high
that has moved very fleadily and well, with a ve-
locity but little exceeding 2 feet.*

[Said Smeaton has alfo made a model of a wind-
mill, and a complete fet of experiments on the
power and effe<St of the wind, aftingon wind-mill
fails of different conftrudlions. But as the ac-
counts thereof are quite too long for the compafs
of my work, 1 therefore only extract little more
than a few of the principal maxims deduced from
his experiments, which, I think, may not only
be of good fervice, to thofe who are concerned
in building wind-mills, but may ferve to confirm
fome principles, deduced from his experiments
on water-mills.]

..<•■■< cO"cO°>">"=

PART III.

Art. 60. ^^ ^^^ Conjirudion and Effeds of IFind-mill Sails .'\

IN trying experiments on wind-mill fails, the
wind itfelf is too uncertain to anfwer the pur-
pofe : we muft therefore have recourfe to artifi-
cial wind.

This may be done two ways ; either by cauf-
ing the air to move againfl the machine, or the
machine to move againfl the air. To caufe the
air to move againft the machine in a fufficient co-^
lumn with fteadinefs and the requifite velocity,
is not eafily put in practice : To carry the ma-
chine forward in a right line againfl the air,

* Probably this wheel was working forge o: furnace bellows, which have
deceived many by their flow regular motion.

t Read May 31 ft and June 14th, 1759, i"" the Philofophical focietyof
London.

Chap. XII, OF WIND -MILLS. 155

would require a larger room than I could conve- Art. 69.
nicntly meet with. What I found moft practi-
cable therefore was^ to carry the axis whereon
the fails were to be fixed progreffively round in
the circumference of a large circle. Upon this
idea the machine was conftructed.*

Specimen of a Set of Experiments,

Radius of the fails, - - 21 inches.

Length of do. in cloth, - - 18

Breadth of do. - - ^^6

r Angle at the extremity, - lodegs.

|-< Do. at the greateft inclination, 25

(^20 turns of tlie fails raifed the weight 1 1 ,3 inch.
Velocity of the centre of the fails in"\

the circumference of the great cir- { fr r

cle in a fecond, in which the ma- T

chine was carried round, )

Continuance of the experiment, 52 fees.

0. \

/eight in tlie fca

le. Turns.

Produft.

olb.

108

510

(>\

526i

546

547-I maxim

520

The product is found by fimply multiplying
the weight in the fcale by the number of turns.

By this fet of experiments it appears that the
maximum velocity is ~ of the greateft velocity,

* I decline giving any defcription or draught of this machine, as I have
net room ; but I may fay, that it was conftruc^ed fo as to wiid up a weight,
(as did the other model) in order to find the effeft of the power. I may ai-
fo infert a fpecimen of a fet of experiments, which I fear will not be well
underftood, for want of a full explanation of the machine.

\ In the folloAving experiments the angle of the fail is accounted from the
plain of their motion ; that is, when they Hand at right angles to the axis,
their angle is denoted o deg. ; this notation being agreeable to the language
of praftitioners, v/ho call the angle fo denoted the weather of the fail ; which
they denominate greater or lefs, according to the quantity of tlie angle.

OF WIND-MILLS. Chap, XIL

and that the ratio of the greateft load to that of
a maximum is, as 9 to 7,5, but by adding the
weight of the fcale and friction to the load the
ratio turns out to be as 10:8,4, or as 5 to 4 nearly.
The following table is the refult of 19 limilar
fcts of experiments^

By the following table it appears, that the nioft
general ratio between the velocity of the fails un-
loaded and when loaded to a maximum, is 3 to 2
nearly.

And the ratio between the greateft load and the
load at a maximum (taking fuch experiments
where tlje fails anfwered befl) is at a medium a-
bout as 6 to 5 nearly.

And that the kind of fails ufed in the 1 5th and
i<5th experiments is beft of all, becaufe they pro-
duce the greateft effedl or produdt, in proportion
to their quantity of furface, as ^.ppears in column

12,

5LE IV. Containing Nineteen Sets of Experiments on IVind-mili
Sails ^ of various flru^Ture^^ p^fifions and quantities offurface.

r ^

c
3

K-

o
35

66 42

3 3^

lb. lb. fq.in

7,56 12,59 318 404 10:7

[o:6

10:

7,9

p 8 o 15 120 93

j 9 3 i8 120 79

j 10 5 20 78

I " 7,522,5113 77

\ 12 10 25 108 73

L13 12 27 100 66

14 7,522,5 123 75

15 10 25 117 74
ji6 12 27 114 66
17 15 30 96 63

4,75 5,3^
7,0 8,12

7,5 8,12

8,3 9,81

8,69 10,37

8,41 10,94

10,65 12,59
IX, 08 13,69
12,09 14,23
12,09 14,78

441 404 10:8,3 10:10, I
464 404 10:6,6 10:8,3 10:10,15
462 404 10:7 , 10:7,1 10:10,15

462 404
518 404

527 404

io:ii, 4
10:12, 8
10:13; o

442 404 10:7,7 10:8,9 10:1 r, o

553 404 10:6,6 10:8,6 10:13, 7

585 404 10:9,2 10:14, 5

639 404 10:6,8 10:8,5 10:15, 8

634 404 10:6,8 10:8,4 10:15, 7

580 404 10:6,6 10:7,7 10:14, 4

799 505 10:6,1 10:8,5 10:15, 8

820 505 10:6,3 10 = ^,1 I0:i6, 2

799 S'^S 10:5,8 10:8,4 10:15, 8

762 505 io;6,6 io;8,2 10:15, 1

18 12 22 105 6A,ii 16,42 27,87 1059 854 10:6,1 10:5,9 10:12, 4

19 12 22 99 64,518,06 1165 1146 10:5,9 ' lo:io, 1

123456 7 8 9 10 II 12

I. Plain fails at an angle of 55 .degrees.

II. Plain fails weathered according to common praftice.

III. Weathered according to Maclaurin's theorem.

IV. Weatherd in the Dutch manner, tried in various pofitions.

V. Weathered in the Dutch manner, but enlarged towards the extremities.
Vi. 8 Sa.i!r,j being fectors of olipfes in their bcft poiitioas.

TABLE V. Containing the Refult of 6 Sets of
Experiments, made for determining the Dif-
ference of EiFeCt according to the Differ-
ence of the Wind.

Ratio of the great-
eft load to the
load at a maxi-
mum.

en "H^
kT On
O O

co'eo'
O O

M IH

tv. d

O O

Ratio of the great'
eft velocity to the
velocity at a max-
imum.

0\ Ov
o o

Ratio of the two
produfts.

Produftoftheleff-
er load and great-
er velocity.

OS
rv

Turns of the fails
therewith.

00 o

l-t

Maximum load for
the half velocity.

d ro
so O

•^ lO

o<>

Produft.

Ov o
d o

O oo

O rv

tTi d

rv 1^

m O
d

Greateft load.

I— 1

IV, VO

cn O

VOOO

tv. (S

rfvo

d d

NO vr>

«\ as,

-^ tv.

vn o

so m

00 en

vo •-.
M

o so

vpao

•H O

SO >-<

Load at the max-
imum.

Turns of the fails
at a maximum.

Turns of the fails,
unloaded.

SO ^v
On O

M 00

Os rv.

Velocity of the
wind in a fe-
cond.

'^00

'^p Os
J^oo

hv »^

'^ Os
'sJ-OO

Angle at the ex-
tremity.

O O

1-^ t-t

Number.

1 m Tf

1 vo^O

I
1 -■

-f

N. B. The fails svere of the fame kind as thofe of Nos. lo,
II and 12, table IV. Continuance of the experiment one mi-
nute.

Zhap.XiL OF WIND-MILLS.

\iOncerning the Effects of Sails according to the differ- Art.
i ent Velocity of the JVind,

I From the foregoing table the following maxims
^icduced.

I Maxim I. The velocity of wind-mill fails, whe-
bher unloaded or loaded, fo as to produce a maxi-
mum, is nearly as the velocity of the wind, their
hape and poiition being the fame.
j This appears by comparing the refpe<n:ive num-
iDcrs of columns 4 and 5, table V, wherein thofe
jiumbers 2, 4 and 6, ought to be double of No. i,
3 and 5, and are as nearly fo as can be expected by
jthe experiments.

! Maxim II. The load at the maximum is near-
jly but fomewhat \^£^ than as the fquare of the ve-
llocity of the wind, the fhape and pofition of the
[fails being the fame.

' This appears by comparing No. 2, 4 and 6, in
jcolumn 6, with i, 3 and 5, wherein the former
iought to be quadruple of the latter (as the veloci-
jty is double) and are as nearly fo as can be expe£l-
|ed.

Maxim III. The efFeds of the fame fails at a
maximum are nearly, but fomewhat lefs than, as
the cubes of the velocity of the wind.*

It has been fhewn maxim I, that the velocity of
fails at a maximum, is nearly as the velocity of
the wind ; and by maxim II, that the load at the
maximum is nearly as the fquare of the fame ve-
locity. If thofe two maxims would hold precife-
ly, it would be a confequence that the effect would
be in a triplicate ratio thereof. How this agrees
with experiment will appear by comparing the
products in column 8, wherein thofe of No. 2, 4
and 6 (the velocity of the wind being double)
ought to be octuble of thofe of No. i, 3 and 5, and
are nearly fo.

* This confirms the ythlawpffpouting fluids.

159

i6d O ^ W I N D - M I L L S. Chap, XI

Art. 69. Maxim IV. The load of the fame fails at tl,

.?.) maximum is nearly as the fquares of, and their e •
fects as the cubes, of their number of turns in
given time.

This maxim may be efteemed a confequence'
the three preceding ones.

[Thefe 4 maxims agree with and confirm tl
4 maxims concerning the effects of i pouting flaijf
acting on underfhot mills ; and, I think, fufficienj
ly confirms as a law of motion, that the effect pr
duccd if not the inftant momentum of a body
motion, is as the fquare of its velocity, as afferte
by the Dutch and Italian philofophers.

Smeaton fays, that by feveral trials in large, i
has found the following angles to anfwer as we
as any :] The radius is fuppofed to be divided i;
to 6 parts, and ^ reckoning from the centre is ca
led 1, the extremity being denoted 6.

Angle witli

Angle with the

No.

the axis.

plab of motion.

72°

18°

18 middle-

77i

I2i

7 extremity

[He feems to prefer the fails being largeft at tl

extremities.]

END OF PART FIRST.

INTRODUCTION.

.....K<^eQa^>..__

WHAT has been faid in the firft part, was meant
to eftabUfh theories and eafy rules — In this part
I mean to bring them into practice, in as concife a
manner as poffible, referring only to the articles in the
firft part, where the reafons and demonftrations are
given.

This part is particularly intended for the help of
Young and Pradical Millwrights, whofe time will not
permit them fully to inveftigate the principles of theo-
ries; which requires a longer feries of ftudies than moft
\ of them can poffibly fpare from their bufniefs ; there-
i fore I fhall endeavour here to reduce the fubftance of
\ all that has been faid, to a few tables, rules, and Ihort
I diredions, which, if found to agree with pradice, will
I be fufficient for the praditioner.

j There are but two principles by which wat6r afts on
i mill-wheels, to give them motion, viz. Percuffion and
I Gravity.

That equal quantities of water, under equal per-
pendicular defcents, will produce double the power by

INTRODUCTION.

gravity that it will by percuflion, has been fhewn m
articles 8 and 6S.

Therefore, when the water is fcarce, we ought td
endeavour to caufe it to aft by gravity, as much aS
poflible, paying due regard to other circumftances noted
in article 44, fo as to obtain a fteady motion, &g. I

«<5>o t<?i v;?^ <-<5==^ "^J'^ *<?*> '<:^ '^^ '^^'^ '-'i'^ '<:!^ <^^

THE

YOUNG

Wright's Guide.

CHAPTER I.

PF THE DIFFEPvENT KINDS OF MILLS.

<'^y"—

tjfUnderpot Mills ^

UNDERSHOT wheels move by tlie per- Art. 70.
cuffion or llroke of the water, and are
Oxiiy half as powerful as other wheels that are
moved by the gravity of the water. See art.
8. Therefore this conftrud:ion ought not to
be ufed, except where there is but little fall
or great plenty of water. The underlliot
j wheel, and all others that move by perculjrion,
ftiould move with a velocity nearly equal to
I two thirds of the velocity of the water. See
I art. 42. Figc 28. plate iv. reprefents this con-
1 Ilruclion/

I For a rule for finding the velocity of the
I water, under any given head, fee art- 51.
! Upon which principles, and by faid rule, is principles
j formed the following table of the velocity of on winch is
i fpoutino; water, under different heads, from ^''""^-^ the
I one to twenty-nve teet nigh above the centre table.
of the ifiue ; to which is added the velocity of

4 Of Undershot Mills. Art. jo^\

CHAP. I. |-j|g wheel fuitable thereto, and the number of*

Principles revolutions a wheel of fifteen feet diameter {

founded thq (which I take to be a good fize) will revolve!

underfhot in a minute; alfo, the number of cogs and!

^' rounds in the wheels, both for double and fm-i

gle gears, fo as to produce about ninety-feveni

or one hundred revolutions for a five feet ftonej

per minute, which I take to be a good motioni

^nd fize for a mill-ftone, grinding for mer-|

chantable flour. ;

That the reader may fully underfland how!

the following table is calculated, let him obi

ferve, i

1. That by art. 42, the velocity of thq
v^heel muft be jufi: 577 thoufandth parts of thej
velocity of the water ; therefore, if the velo-;
city of the water, per fecond, be multiplied!
by ,577 the produ6l will be the maximum ve-i
locity of the wheel, or velocity that will pro-!
duce the greateft elfedl, which is the third co
lumn in the table.

2. The velocity of the v^'^heel per fecond,
multiplied by 60, produces the diftance thei
circumference moves per minute, which, di-i
vided by 47,1 feet, the circumference of a 15!
feet wheel, quotes the number of revolution?!
of the wheel per minute, which is the fourtiij
column. I

3 . That by art. 20 and 74, the number oi'
revolutions of the wheel per minute, multi-j
plied by the number of cogs in all the driving
vv'heels, fucceffively, and that produ6l dividedj
by the product of the number of cogs in all the!
leading wheels, multiplied fucceflively, the|
quotient is the revolutions of the Hones peii
minute, which is the ninth and twelfth co-
lumns.

Art, 70. Op Undershot Mills. 5

4. The cubochs of power required to drive CHAP. I.
the ftone, being, by art. 61, equal to 111,78 ^^'^""^Pj^j,
cubochs per fecond, which, divided by half the founded ih«
head of water, added to all the fall (if any,) underfliot
being the virtual or efFedtive head by art. 61

quotes the quantity of water, in cubic feet,
required per fecond, which is the thirteenth
column.

5. The quantity required, divided by the
velocity with which it is to iilue, quotes the
area of the aperture of the gate — fourteenth
column.

6. The quantity required, divided by the
velocity of the water proper for it to move a-
long the canal, quotes the area of a fedion of
the canal — fifteenth column.

7. Having obtained their areas, it is eafy,
by art. 6§, to determine the width and depth,
fs may fuit other circumftances.

THE MILL-WRIGHT's TABLE '

FOR ■

UNDERSHOT MILLS,

:-ALCULATED FOR A WATER-WHEEL OF FIFTEEN FEET, AND STONESJ

" I
OF FIVE FEET DIAMETER.

•^

^ p

S'^

•T! [L

2. 0
5 Ei.

rr r*

1-1

o't

w. O

|"r

P 5

r^ p

•-:

n>'

13"

feet

8,1

11,4

1 4,

l6,2

i8,

- a-

^'2

<TI 4

feet

4,^7

8;07

5,94

8.36

10,28

9'34ii>i9
^ .'^, .0,38ji3,22

6 J19 84 I i,44ji4,6

7 ;2I,43 12,36 I5?74
22,8 |i3,ijji6,75
24,3 |i4;02rr7?8
25,54^4,73 18^78
26,73.15, 42
28, |r6,i6
29,16116,82
30 >2 17,42

3i>34;i8,b8
32>4 ji8,69

1 12
96

f,;!

,_,

►-••

0 ,

rif

0 •

>-<

(fq

—

>-M

;:;

(-••

1,1

t/a

f^'

'-^

0
3

?r>

-a

•^

°2.
0

0
^

22|54 16 I

10
Ii

T2
13

15
16

17 53'32Ji9'22

i9»7

20'5

2r'42
22,19

23^03
23.8

24,

18 I34'34'i9'8it25,23

'9 35
20 !36'2
21
22

24
25

37'iT
37'9S
33'79
39'69
40' 5

20'29

2o'88

2I'4I

25;8

26,6
7,26

2I'86'27,-S4
22'38i28,5
22'9 29M7
23V^ 2 9V75

23|54 19:
8825j54|i9l
78!23:48|20|
66:24|48ji8:
66^24!48|2o'

66|25|44!r9|
66j25|44|2oj
66 26142 19'!
6o'25|44!20i

60
60
60
60
60

01,6

99^ I
oo,s

97. I

97, jirs'i
96,2 1 12.1
96,2^104 I
97,2' 96:1
00,2
99,

5 6 7

44120 I

42
42

20; I
i
20;

00,

GO,

99'^
99'
99.

96 I
96 I
96;:
962
96:2
882
882
88j2
842
802
802
2
782
78

5, 98,66
71 96,2

7! 96,2
6 100,
7'roo,8
8 100,

9j 99'5
oi 98,4

ljl02,6

oj 97^63
96,5
99'7
97,9
96,1

98-3
98'3
97,
98,6

97,7
96,2

99>

a O ^.

3 n rr

O d

a J2

5 2

< 3 fi>

0 3-

M^ n

■a

p CR

p
0

o'o

p d

3 2

cub.ft.fiip.ft.

223,5

27.5

111,78

9,8

74'52

4,6

55.89

3,45

44,7

2,48

37,26

1.9

31.9

1,48

27,94

1,22

24,84

1,02

22,89

20,32

.76

18,63

,66

16,27

.56

15,94

.53

i4>9

.47

i5'97

.43

13^14

^39

12-42

'36

11,76

'33

11,17

10,64

.29

10,16

.26

9'72

;25

f;.32

.23

8,94

.22

fD ° p

o" a* o

g S5

" o

P cr

«■■ E-

IS, wJ

lup.ft.

M9,
74.5
43.
37,26

29.8

24,84

21,26

18,6

16,56

15,26

i3»54
12,42
ro,8
10,6
9 93
9,31
8,76
8,28
7,84
7.4
7.-1
6,77
6,48
6,2 r
5 96

>?-^

■•^1

Art. yo* Of Undershot Mills. 7

Note, that five feet fall is the leaft that a ^ ^ ^P- ^^
fingle gear can be built on, to keep tiie cog-
wheel clear of the water^ and give the ftone
fufRcient motion.

Although double gear is calculated to fifteen
feet fall, yet I do not recommend them above
ten feet, unlefs for fome particular conveni-
ence, fuch as two pair of (tones to one wheel,
&c. &c. The number of cogs in the wheels
are even, and chofen to fuit eight, fix, or four
arms, fo as not to pafs through any of them,
this being the common practice. But when
the motion cannot be obtained without a trun-
dle that will caufe the fame cogs and rounds
to meet too often, fuch as 16 into 96, which
will meet every revolution of the cog-wheel,
or 18 into 96, which will meet every third re-
volution— I advife rather to put in one more
or lefs, as may beft fuit the motion, which
will caufe them to change oftener. See art.
82.

Note, that the frii^ion at the aperture of
the gate will greatly diminifh both the veloci-
ty and power of the water in this application,
where the head is great, if the gate be made
of the ufual form, wide and Ihallow. Where
the head is great, the friction will be great.
See art. ^^, Therefore the wheel mult be
narrow, and the aperture of the gate of a
fquare form, to evade the friction and lofs that
may be under a wide wheel, if it does not run
clofe to the Iheeting.

8 Of Undershot Mills. Art,*ji:i,\

CHAP. I.

Ufe of the Table,

H AV I N G levelled your mill-feat carefully,

and finding fuch fall and quantity of water asi

determines you to make choice of an under-'

ihot wheel ; for inftance, fuppofe 6 feet fall,j

and about 45 cubic feet of water per fecond,!

which you find as directed in art. 53 ; caft offij

about I foot for fall in the tale-race, belowi

the bottom of the wheel, if fubjed to back-i

water, leaves you 5 feet head ; look for 5 feet,

head in the firll column of the table, and a-j

gainfl; it are all the calculations for a 15 feet;

water-wheel and 5 feet ftones ; in the thir-j

teenth column you have 44,7 cubic feet of

water ; which Ihews you have enough for a 51

feet pair of ilones ; and the velocity of thai

Water will be 18 feet per fecond, the velocity!

of the wheel 10,38 feet per fecond, and it;

will revolve 13,22 times per minute. And ifl

you choofe double gear, then 66 cogs in thCj

mailer cog-wheel, 24 rounds in the wallowerJ

48 cogs in the counter cog-wheel, and 18:

rounds in the trundle, will give the flone 971

revolutions in a minute ; if fmgle gear, 1 1 21

cogs and 15 rounds give 98,66 revolutions in|

a minute ; it will require 44,7 cubic feet oil

water per fecond ; the fize of the gate mull!

be 2,48 feet, which will be about 4 feet widci

and ,62 feet deep, about 71-4 inches deep ;!

the fize of the canal mufl be 29,8 feet; that

is, about 3 feet deep, and 9,93 or nearly lo

feet wide. If you choofe fmgle gear, you

may make your water-wheel much lefs, fa;

Art, -JO. Of Undershot Mills. 9

7 1-2 feet, the half of 15 feet, then the cog- chap. I.
wheel muft have half the number of cogs, the
trundle-head the fame, the ipindle will be
longer, hufk lov/er, and the miU full as good ;
43ut, in this cafe, it will not do, becaufe a cog-
wheel of 66 cogs would reach the v/ater ; but
where the head is 10 or 12 feet, \t will do very
well.

If you choofe Hones, or water-wheels, of
other fizes. It will be eafy, by the rules by
which the table is calculated, to proportion
the whole to fuit, feeing you have the veloci-
ty of the periphery of a w^heel of any fize.'*

* One advantage large wheels has over fmall ones is, they

•jCaft ofi the back-water much better. The buckets of the low

"wheel will lift the water much more than thofe of the high

wheel; becaufe, the nearer the v/ater rifes to the centre of

the wheel, the nearer the buckets approach the horizontal or

lifting pofition.

Fig. 28 is an underplot wheel. Some prefer to flant the
forebay under the wheel, as in the figure, that the gate may
*be drawn near the floats ; becaufe (fay they) the water afts
!.with more power near the gate, than at a diftance ; which
.appears to be the cafe, when we confider, that the nearer
we approach the gate, the nearer the column of v/ater ap-
proaches to be what is called a perfed definite quantity. See
art. 59. _

Others again fa}', that it acquires equal power in defcend-
iug the ihute (it will certainly acquire equal velocity, abating
only i'or the friftion of the Ihuce and airj. When the ftiute
has a conliderable defcent, the greater the diflance from the
gate, the greater the velocity and power of the water ; but
where the defcent of the llmte is not fuliicient to overcome

the fri<^ion of the air, &c. then the nearer the gate, the ,, ,,

. i<cli to car-

greater the velocity and power of the water; which argues ,-,, the water

'in favour of drawing the gate near the floats. Yet, where do-vvnalong

the fall is great, or water plenty, and the expence of a deep fhute to the

penftock conliderable, the fmall difference of power is not wheel, in

worth- the expence o-f obtaining. In thefe cafes, it is beft to high heads.

havb a Ihallow penftock, and a lono- iliuce to convey the v.ater

lo Of Undershot Mills. j4rt, jq. \

c H A p. I.

Obfervations on the Table*

obferva- I. I T is Calculated for anunderfhot wheel |

tions. conftnifted, and the water ftiot on, as in plate i

IV, fig. 28. The head is counted from the i
point of imparl I, and the motion of the wheel i
at a maximum, about ,58 of the velocity of •
the water ; but when there is plenty of water, \
and great head, the wheel will run beft at ;
about ,66 or two thirds of the velocity of the i
water : therefore the ftones will incline to run i
fafter than in the table, in the ratio of 58 to
66, nearly ; for which reafon, I have fet the ,
motion of 5 feet ftones under 100 revolutions !
in a minute, which is flower than common
practice ; they will incline to run between 96
and no revolutions.

2. I have taken half of the whole head a-
bove the point of imparl, for the virtual or
efFetlive head, by art. 53 ; which appears to
me will be too little in very low heads, and ;
perhaps too much in high ones. As the prin- ;
ciple of non-elafticity does not appear to me
to operate againft the power fo much in low
as in high heads, therefore if the head be on-
down to the wheel, drawing the gate at the top of the fhute ; '
which is frequently done, to fave expence, in building faw- i
mills, with flutter- wheels, which are fmallunderfhot wheels, i
fixed on the crank, fo fmall as to obtain a fufBcient number
of ftrokes of the faw in a minute, fay about 120^ This
wheel is to be calculated of fuchfize as to fuit the velocity of
the water at the point of impaft, fo as to make that number
of revolutions in a minute.
■ For the method of fliooting the water on an underfliot

jil cjgm fv/heel, where the fall is great, fee Thomas Ellicott's plan,
T^rt 5, plate I, fig. 6*

Jrt.yi. Of Tub Mills. ii

ly I foot, it may not require 223,5 cubic feet CHAP. I.
of water per fecond, and if 20. feet, may re-
quire more than 11,17 cubic feet of water per
fecond^ as in the table. See art. 8.

_...<^B> :^^S>e^<S&>-.

Of Tub Mills. Art. 71.

A TUB MILL has a horizontal water- Tub Mills

wheel, that is acted on by the percuffion of ^efGnbed.

the water altogether ; the fhaft is verticle,

carrying the ttone on the top of it, and ferves

in place of a fpindle ; the lower end of this

Ihaft is fet in a flep fixed in a bridge-tree, by

which the ftone is raifed and lowered, as by

the bridge-tree of other mills ; the water is

Ihot on the upper fide of the wheel, in a tan-

jgent direction with its circumference. See

\ fig. 29, plate IV, which is a top view of the

I tub-wheel, and fig. 30 is a fide view of it,

iwith the ftone on the top of the fhaft, biidge-

!tree, &c. The wheel runs in a hoop, like a

i miil-ftone hoop, projecting fo far above the

i wheel as to prevent the water from iliooting

jover the wheel, and whirls it about until it

'ftrikes the buckets, becaufe the water is (hot

on in a deep narrow column, 9 inches v/ide

and 18 inches deep, to drive a 5 feet ftone,

with 8 feet head — fo that all this column can-

!not enter the buckets until part has palled half

(Way round the wheel, fo that there are alv/ays

I nearly half the buckets ftruck at once; the

-buckets are {et obliquely, fo that the witer

1
I

iz Of Tub Mills. Art, 71, |

CHAP. I. ip^ay ftrike them at right angles. See figt 30.
As foon as it ftrikes it efcapes under the wheel :
in every direction, as in fig. 29.*

* Note, that in fig- 30, I have allowed the gate to be j
drawn inlide of the penflock, and not in the Ihute near the \
wheel, as is the common praclice; becaufe the water will '
leak out much along fide of the gate, if drawn in the fliute. j
But here we muft confider, that the gate muft always be full !
drawn, and the quantity of water regulated by a regulater !
in the Ihote near the wheel ; fo that the fhute will be per- ■
feftly full, and preffed with the whole weight of the head, .
elfe a great part of the power may be lofl.

To Ihew this more plain, fuppofe the long fhute A, from
the high head (fliewn by dotted lines) of the underfhot mill, j
fig- 28, be made tight by being covered at top, then, if wC;
draw the gate A, but not fully^ if the fhute at bottom be large i
' enough to vent all the water that ilFues through the gate,]

when the fhute is full to A, then it cannot fill higher than A ;
therefore, all that part of the head above A is lofl, it being,
of no other fervice than to fupply the fhute, and keep it full
to A, and the head from A to the wheel is all that afts on the
wheel.

Again, when we fliut the gate, the flmte cannot run emp-
ty, becaufe it would leave a vacuum in the head of the fliute!
at A ; therefore the preffure of the atmofphere refifls the!
■water from running out of the fhute, and whatever head pfi
water is in the fhute, when the gate is Ihut, will balance its,
weight of the prefTure of the atmofphere, and prevent it!
from adling on the lower fide of the gate, which will caufe
it to be very hard to draw — For, fuppofe 1 1 feet head of
water to be in the ihute when the gate was fhut, its prefllire^
is equal to about f;lb- per fquare inch ; then, if the gate be
48 by 6 inches, which is equal to 288 inches, this multiplied!
by 5, is equal to 14401b. the additional px-effure on the
gate-

Again, if the gate be full drawn, and the fliute be not
much larger at the upper than lower end, all thefe evils wil
take place to caufe the lofs of power- To remedy all this
put the gate H at the bottom of tlie fliute t© regulate the
quantity of water by, and make a vah'c at A to fhut on the
infide of the fljute, like the valve of a pair of bellows, which
will fliut when the gate A is drawn, and open when the gate
fliuts, to let air into the fliute ; this plan will do better thar'

^rt. ji> Of Tub Mills. 13

The difadvantages of thefe wheels are, CHAP. I.

1. The water does not a6l to advantage on
them, we being obUged to make them fo iinall
to obtain velocity to the ftone (in moft cafes)
that the buckets take up a third part of their
diameter.

2. The water a£ls with lefs power than on Tub mills
underfhot wheels, as it is lefs confined at the ^^ with kfs
time of (Iriking the wheel, and its non elaftic underfhots.
principle takes place more fully. See art. 8.

3. It is with difficulty we can put a fufficient
quantity of water to ad: on them to drive them
with fufficient power, if the head be low ;
therefore I advife to flrike the water on in
two places, as in fig. 29 ; then the apertures
need only be about 6 by 13 inches each, in-
ftead of 9 by 18, and will adl to more advan-
tage ; and then, in this cafe, nearly all the
buckets will be acled on at once.

Their advantages are,

Their exceeding fimplicity and cheapnefs, Tiiey are
having no cogs nor rounds to be kept in re- f^ ot^il,ers^
pair ; their wearmg parts are fev^^ and have with plenty
but little friction ; the Hep-gudgeon runs un- of water.
i der v/ater, therefore, if well fixed, will not
j get out of order in a long time ; and they will
I move with fufficient velocity and power with
I 9 or 10 feet total fall, and plenty of water ;
j and, if they be well fixed, they Vv^il not re-
long open fhutcs, for faw-mills with flutter-wheels or tub
I mills, as by it we evade the friftion of the ihute and refiltance
i of the air.

I The reader will with difficulty underfcand what is here
j faid, unlefs he be acquainted with the theory of the preffure
I of the atmofphere, vacuums, &c. See thefe fubjefts, touched
I on in art. ^6-

14 Of Tub Mills. Art,yi,\

CHAP. I. quire much more water than underfhot wheels ; ;

therefore they are vaftly preferable in all feats i

with plenty of water, and above 8 feet fall, j
In order that the reader may fully underr j

Hand how the following table is calculated^ !

let him confider, •

Should I • That as the tub-wheel moves altogether t

move 2-'3, by percuffion, the water flying clear of the j
Ifthe water wheel the inflant it ftrikes, and it being better, !

by art. 70, for fuch wheels to move fafter in-:;

ftead of flower than the maximum velocity ; |

therefore, inftead of ,577 we will allow themi
Rules *o move ,66 velocity of the water ; then mul-!

To find the tiplying the velocity of the water by ,66 gives i
velocity of the Velocity of the wheel, at the centre of the I
the water, j^^^^j^g^g . which is the 3d column in the table, i
Its diameter 2. And the velocity of the wheel per fecond, I

multiplied by 60, and divided by the number!

of revolutions the flione is to make in a minute, |

gives the circumference of the wheel at the

centre of the buckets ; which circumference, ;

multiplied by 7, and divided by 22, gives thei

diameter from the centre of the buckets, tQ[

produce the number of revolutions required ; !

which are the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th columns. |
Thequanti- 3. The cuboclis of powcr required, by art.]
ty of water ^^ to drivc the ftone, divided by half the I

head, gives the cubic feet of water required;

to produce faid power ; which are the 8th andj

loth columns.
Tiiefizeof 4. The cubic feet of Water, divided by the |
the aper- velocity, will glvc the fum of the apertures of |

the gates; which are the 9th and nth co

lumns.

Art, yi. Of Tub Mills. i^

5. The cubic feet of water, divided by 1,5 chap. i.
feet, the velocity of the water in the canal, i"^^'^V^
gives the area of a fedion of the canal ; which

are the 1 2th and 1 3th columns.

6. For the quantity of water, aperture of
gate, and fize of canal, for 5 feet ftones, fee
table for underlhot Mills, in art. 70.

<-'

THE MILL-WRIGHT's TABLE
FOR

TUB MILLS.

ft.

15
16

17
18

feet

22,8

24^3
25>54

26,73
28,

29,16

30,2

31^34

32,4

p JL

feet

15^04
16,03
16,85
17,64
18,48

■{^ -t

feet feet

2,17

2,5
2,63

2;75
2,9

19,243,01

19^93
20,68

3>i2

3,24

3^34
3,43

33,32(21,99
34,34122,66
35,1 8*23, 21 13,63
36,2 23,893,71

J 3 4

2,73

3^12

3,28

3^44
3,6

3^74

3,9

4,03
4,12

4,25

4,41
4,52
4,62

feet

3
3,68

3^97
4,15
4,34
4,53
4,7

87
5,61
5,18
5^32
5>47
5,49

§=2: '§^31

B " 'Sol

■ rt-

►+»

•-<

1-^1

-1

•a

>-!

►a

►1

•-^

fectcub.ftfu.f

3>9 !i7,34i
4,37|i5^4i|
4,5913^^7;

c-t

pi-

0
0

V. 0

I^'i

3 0

ft' Hi

3" rt-

65 =^

< n

(h M

o'3

n »>

•5?

2.3^

•^o

J" 2'

v/1 j:^.

1-4- —f.

J^ 0

-^ CT-

"^ 3-

I-) oq

fT ?

n re

0 ^

t3 <

CL »5

1-1

i-f

cub.ftfu.ft Tup. ft fup. ft '

4,b

4,9

5^24
5^43
^,67
5.83
5,95

12,611
11,56
10,67

9>9
9,24
8,67
8,16

6,i8j 7,7

6,33 7-3
6,47 6,9c

,76
,64

,54
,47
,41

,36

^33

.29

,27

,24

,22

^19

.40,9 !i,79

36,3511,5
32,721,28

29,741,11

27,26
25,17
23,36

21,93

20,45

19,24
18,18

17,
16,36

,97
,86

,77

>57

.52

,48

,45
II

10,3
9^25
8,4
7>7
7,1
6,6
6,16
5>7i

5.*3

4,9

4,62

27,3
24,23

21,7

^9,83
18,17

16,8

14,62
i3>6
12,15
12,12

"'33
10,9

Jrt.yi. Of Tub Mills. 17

CHAP. I.

tffe of the Talk for Tub Mills,

HAVING levelled your feat, and finding
that you have above 8 feet fall, and plenty of
water, and wifh to build a mill on the fim-
pleft, cheapefl, and beft conftrudion to fuit
your feat, you will, of courfe, make choice
of a tub mill.

Cad off I foot for fall in the tale-race below
the bottom of the wheel, if it be fubjed to
back-water, and 9 inches for the wheel : then
fuppofe you have 9 feet left for head above
the wheel ; look in the table, againft 9 feet
head, and you have all the calculations necef-
fary for 4, 5, 6 and 7 feet ftones, the quan-
tity of water required to drive them^ the fum
of the areas of the apertures, and the areas of
the canals.

If you choofe ftones of any other fize, you
can eafily proportion the parts to fuit, by the
rules by which the table is calculated.

Of Breaft Milts. Art. 72.

I BR. EAST WHEELS, which have the on Breaft
I water fhot on them in a tangent direction, are ^i'^s the
! acted on by the principles of both percuffion both by per-
land gravity; all that part above the point of cuffionand
jimpad, called head, a6ls by percuffion, and §^^^^^>'-
• all that part below faid point, called fall, a»fls
iby gravity.
i D ' ■

i8 Of Breast Mills. Art, jii \

CHAP. I. We are obliged, in this ftru^lure of breaft

Plate IV. mills, to ufe more head than will a6l to advan- ;

*ig- 31- tage; becaufe we cannot ftrike the water on I
the wheel, in a true tangent dired:ion, higher i
than I, the point of impad; in fig. 31, which j
is a bread- wheel, with 12 feet perpendicular ;
defcent, 6,^ feet of which is above the point j
I,' as head, and ^^^ feet below, as fall. The I
upper end of the lliute, that carries the water ;
down to the wheel, muft proje^i fome inches
above the point of the gate when full drawn, i
elie the water will llrike towards the centre of;
the wheel ; and it mull not projed; too high, !
elfe the water in the penflock will not come
fafl enough into the Ihute when the head fmks!
a little. Ihe bottom of the penftock is a little
below the top end of the fhute, to leave room :
for Hones and gravel to fettle, and prevent!
them from getting into the gate.

We might lay the water on higher, by fet-
ting the top of the penftock clofe to the wheel,
and ufmg a Hiding gate at bottom, as Ihewn
by the dotted lines ; but this is not approved;
of in practice . See EUicott's mode, part 5,1
plate III, fig. I.

Pitchback ^^^ ^^ *^^ Water in the penflock be nearly!

wheels have as high as the wheel, it may be carried over,]

th^n'^e"ual ^^ ^^ ^^^ Upper dottcd lines, and fhot on back-!

tooverfhots wards, making that part next the wheel the'
iliute to guide the water into the wheel, and!
the gate very narrovv^ or fhallow, allowing the!
water to run over the top of it when drawn ;
by this method (called Pitchback) the headj
may be reduced to the fame as it is for ao!
overfiiot wheel ; and then the motion of thej
circumference of the wheel will be equal to

Art. ji. Of Breast Mills. 19

the motion of an overfhot wheel, whofe dia- CHAP. L
meter is equal to the fall below the point of
impa^, and their power will be equal.

This flirufture of a wheel, fig. 31, I take Fig. 31.
to be a good one, for the following reafons,
viz.

1. The buckets, or floats, receive the per- wheel of
cuflion of the water at right angles, whicli is Jrll^on"
the bell direction poflible.

2. It prevents the water from flying to-
wards the centre of the wheel, without re-
acting againft the bottom of the buckets, and
retains it in the wheel, to aft by its gravity in
its defcent, after the llroke.

3. It admits air, and difcharges the water
freely, without lifting it at bottom ; and this
is an important advantage, becaufe, if the
buckets of a wheel be tight, and the wheel
wades a little in back-water, they will lift the
water a confiderable diftance as they empty ;
the preflure of the atmofphere prevents the
water from leaving the buckets freely, and it
requires a great force to lift them out of the
water with the velocity of the wheel ; which
may be proved by dipping a common water-
Ibucket into water, and lifting it out, bot-
tom up, with a quick motion, you have to
'lift not only the water in the bucket, but it

I appears to fuck a deal more up after it ; which
jis the effed: of the prelTure of the atmofphere.
iSee art. ^(s. This fliews the neceffity of air-
jholes to let air into the buckets, that the wa-
iter may have liberty to get out freely,
i Its difadvantages are,

i I . It lofes the water much, if it is not kept
jclole to the Iheeting. And,

20 Of Breast Mills. • ^^rys

CHAP. I. 2. It requires too great a part of the total;

fall to be ufed as head, which is a lofs of pow-!

er, one foot fall being equal in power to two :

feet head, by art. 8» |

Fig. 32. Fig. 32 is a draught, lliewing the pofition of j

the fhute for ftriking the v/ater on a wheel ini

a tangent diredion, for all the total perpen-j

dicular defcents from 6 to 15 feet ; the points!

of imparl are numbered infide the fig. witb;

the number of the total fail, that each is for;

refpeftively. The top of the fhute is only I

about 15 inches from the wheel, in order to;

fet the point of impaft as high as poffible, al-i

lowing 3 feet above the upper end of the fhute,

to the top of the water in the penftock, whicbi

is ^ittle enough, when the head is often to be

run down any confiderable diftance ; but where;

the ftream is Heady, being always nearly thei

fame height in the penftock, 2 feet would be|

iufficient, efpecially in the greateft total fails,

where the quantity is lefs, raifing the fhute ij

foot would raife the point of impact nearly thei

fame, and increafe the power, becaufe i footi

fall is equal in power to 2 feet head, by art.i

61: - " " ;

On thefe principles, to fuit the applications!
of water, as reprefented by fig. 32, I havej
calculated the following table for breafi mills .j
And, in order that the reader may fully un-
derftand the principles on which it is calcu-;
lated, let him confider as follows : |

Principles I . That all the water above the point of im-|

brrlft mVir ^^^^> "^^^^^^ ^^^^^' ^^^ wholiy by percuffionJ

table is and all below faid point, called fall, aAs whol-J

f :mded. ly by gravity (fee art. 60) and form the 2c

and 3d columns..

Art, yi* Of Breast Mills, 21,

2. That half the head, added to the whole CHAP. I,
fall, conftitutes the vu'tual or effedive defcent,

by art. 61 ; which is the 4th column.

3. That if the water was permitted to de- Rules
fcend freely down the circular llieeting, after To find the
it pafles the point of imparl, its velocity would velocity ofa
be accelerated, by art. 60, to be, at the low- "^^^ ^^^^
elt point, equal to the velocity of water fpout-

ing from under a head equal to the whole ~de-
fcent : therefore the maximum velocity of this
wheel will be a compound of the velocity to
fuit the head and the acceleration after it pafles
the point of impad. Therefore, to find the
velocity of this wheel, I firft multiply the ve-
locity of the head, in column 5, by ,577 (as
for the underftiot mills) which gives the velo-
.city fuitable to the head ; I then (by the rule
for determining the velocity of overihots) fay,
as the velocity of water defcending 21 feet,
equal to 37, 1 1 feet per fecond, is to the velo-
city of the vv^heel 10 feet per fecond, fo is the
acceleration of velocity, after it pafles the point
of imparl, to the accelerated velocity of the
wheel ; and thefe two velocities added, gives
the velocity of the wheel ; which is the 6th
column.

4. The velocity of the wheel per fecond, its number
multipUed by 60, and divided by the circum- o.^^e^olu-
ference of the wheel, gives the revolutions per
minute ; 7th column.

5. The number of cogs in the cog-wheel, Revolutions
multiplied by the number of revolutions of the of the ftone.
wheel per minute, and divided by the rounds

in the trundie-head, will give the number of
revolutions of the flone per minute ; and if we
divide by the number of revolutions the ftone

22 Of Breast Mills. Art, yi,

CHAP. I. is ^Q have, it gives the rounds in the trundle,
and, when fractions arife, take the neareil
whole number ; columns 8, 9, and 10.

Power re- 6. The cubochs of power required to turn;

quired. ^^ ftone, by art. 63, divided by the virtual
defcent, gives the cubic feet of water required j
per fecond ; column 11. "I

Area of the 7» The cubic feet, divided by the velocity j

canal. of water allowed in the canal, fuppofe 1,5

feet per fecond, gives the area of the canal ;|
column 12. '

8. If the mill is to be double geared, take
the revolutions of the wheel from column 7 of
this table, and look in column 4 of the under-
ftiot table, art. 70, for the number of revo-
lutions neareft to it, and againfl that number
you have the gears that will give a 5 feet ftone
the right motion.

THE M I L L.W R I G H T's TABLE

FOR

BREAST MILLS,

CALCULATED FOR A WATEfR-WHEEL FIFTEEN FEET, AND STONES
FIVE FEET DIAMETER; THE WATER BEING SHOT ON
IN A TANGENT DIRECTION TO THE CIR-
CUMFERENCE OF THE WHEEL.

ffi

•n

CI.

0 5"

p
cr
0

5" ■

►+J 0

n ^

-5

*P 1

> ^

i— n

■ ^

n "

5'^

>T3

2.
5'

C a-

rl-

^ 3

►+5

f?n

3
13

'rP

O o

Ci. '*■.

? s

■*.

5' "^

B-

pi n>

? «^

•^ o

P-

o 3

, rfr

;—

feet

feet feet

feet

4,5^5

3.75

5. 2,

4.5

5.5, 2,5

S^'^S

5.9,3.1

0,05

6,2i 0,8

6,9

6,5' 4.5

7,75

6,85,3

8,7

»3

6,8 6,2

9,6

6,9 7,1

J0.55

7,,«,

".5

feet

17.13
18,

18,99

19,48

20,16

20,64

21,11

21,3

21,13

feet

10,61

11.3

12,07

12,53
13.07

13.53
14,03

14.35
14,41

14,76

No.

3.5 p2

4.4 "2

5.3 1104

6, 104

6.6 96

7. I 96
7,81! 96
8,28, 96
8,35! 96
8,56; 96

No.

151
161

i6i

161

1 61
i6'i

17 I

i8i

i8|

00,8
00,8

99.4
02,7
99,6
02,

o©,5

97.5
97.8
98,4

ri 0

^f^

-< 0

:! f?

-n

a S)

0 a

cr^

« -

U, 0

"O ^,

i-i

•-< C

►-1 "5

2 3

3
CL

P-^

■*>

cub. ft

fup. ft

29,8

19.25

24,83

16,55

21,29

14,19

18,45

12,3

16,2

10,8

14,42

9,61

12,73

8,49

11.63

7>75

10,59

7,06

9.72

6,48

1 1

!^'=

24
CHAP. I.

5f Breast Mills; Art, y^A

tlfe of the Table for Breaft Mills i

HAVING a feat with above 6 feet fallj
but not enough for an overlhot mill, and the!
water being Icarce, fo that you wifh to make
the heft ufe of it, leads you to the choice of a!
breafl mill. !

Caft off about i foot for fall in the tale-|
race below the bottom of the wheel, if muchl
fubje6t to back-water ; and fuppofe you havel
then 9 feet total defcent ; look for it in thei
firft column of the table, and againfl it you
have it divided into 5,9 feet head above, and!
3,1 feet fall below the point of imparl;, which
is the highefl point that the water can be fair-
ly ftruck on the wheel, leaving the head 3 feel
deep above the Ihute ; which is equal to 6,oj:
feet virtual or elFedlive defcent : the velocit}
of the water ftriking the wheel 18,99 ^^^^j
velocity of the wheel 12,07 feet, per fecond.j
will revolve 16 times in a minute; and, ijj
fmgle geared, 104 cogs, and 16 rounds, give:;
the flone 99,4 revolutions in a minute, re-i
quires 21,29 cubic feet of water per fecond (
the area of a fedion of the canal mult be 14, i Cj
feet, about 3 feet deep, and 5 feet wide. I:'
the ftones be of any other fize, it is eafy t('
proportion the gears to give them any numbeji
of revolutions required. • j

If you wiih to proportion the fize of th(

ftones to the power of your feat, multiply th<!

; cubic feet of water your ftream affords per fej

cond, by the virtual defcent in column 4, an«

that product is the power in cubochs ; thei

Art. y^^. Of Overshot Mills. 25

look in the table, in art. 63, for the fize of the CHAP, i,
{lone that neareft fuits that power.

For inftance, fuppofe your ftream affords
14 cubic feet of water per fecond, then I4multi-
pUed by 6,05 feet virtual defcent, produces
84,7 cubochs of power ; which, in the table in
art. 63, comes neareft to 4,5 feet for the dia-
meter of the flones ; but, by the rules laid
down in art. 63, the fize may be found more
exactly.

Note, 6 cubochs of power are required to
every fuperficial foot of the (tones.

•"<'^oOo'^>-

Of Over/loot Mills. Ah. 75,

FIG. 33, plate IV, is an Overfhot Wheel ; Fig. ^;.
the water is laid on at the top,, fo that the up- ^^jfJ^^^^L
per part of the column will be in a true tan- fcribcd.
gent direction w4th the circumference of the
wheel, but fo that all the water may ftrike with-
in the circle of the wheel.

The gate is drav/n about 1 2 inches behind of fhooting^
the perpendicular line from the centre of the on the water
wheel, and the point of the fhute ends at faid
perpendicular^ with a direction a little dow^i-
wards, which gives the v/ater a little velocity
downwards to follow the v/heel; for if it be
directed horizontally, the head will give it no
velocity downwards, and, if the head be great,
the parabohc curve, which the fpouting water
form:;, vv'ill extend beyond the oucfide of the

26 Of Overshot Mills. An, 73. i

CHAP. I. circle of the v/lieel, and it will incline to fly j

over. See art. 44 and 60. ;

Proper ve- The head above the wheel a6ls 'by per- :

locityofthe ^^ITion, as on an underfhot vv^hee], and we i

water ■ '

fpoutino- on havc fhcwn, art. 43, that the head Ihould be i
tke wheel, fuch as to glve the water velocity 3 for 2 of!
the wheel. After the water ftrikes the wheel i
it a6ls by gravity ; therefore, to calculate thej
power^ we mult take half the head and add it 1
to the fail, for the virtual defcent, as in breaft \
mills. I

The velocity of overftiot v/heels are as the;
fquare roots of their diameters. See art. '

43- ■j

On thefe principles, I have calculated the!

following table for overlhot wheels ; and, ini

order that the reader may underfland it fully,!

let him confider well the following premifes : 1

Rule for I. That the vclocity of the Water fpoutiug!

proportion- q^ ^\^q whccl muft be one and a half the velo-i

mv the head • /- i , , , , r ^

to the wheel City ot the wheel, by art. 43 ; then, to nnd
the head that will give faid velocity, fay, as
the fquare of 16,2 feet per fecond, is to4feet,j
the head that gives that velocity, fo is the'
fquare of the velocity required, to the headj
that will give that velocity — But, to this head,'
fo found, vve mull add a little by conjefture,!
to overcome the fri6lion of the aperture. Seei'

^i"^- 55-

In this table, I have added to the heads ol

wheels from 9 to 1 2 feet diameter , i of a footj

and from 12 to 20 I have added ,1 tenth more,

for every foot increafe of diameter, and frotr

20 to 30 feet 1 have added ,05 more to ever);

foot diameter's increafe ; v/hich gives a 30 feet

lii^ wheel 1,5 feet additional head, while a 9 fce|

. Art. y^. Of Overshot Mills. 27

I wheel has only , i tenth of a foot, to overcome chap, l
I the friction. The reafon of this great difference
I will appear when we confider that the friclion
I increafes as the aperture decreafes, and as the
I velocity increafes — But this much depends on
the form of the gate, for if that be nearly
fquare, there will be but little friclion, but if
I very oblong, fay 24 inches by half an inch,
i then it vAW be very great.
I The heads, thus found, compofe the 3d co-
I lumn .

, 2. The head, added to the diameter of the
i wheel, makes the total defcent, and is co-

' , Rules

lumn I.

3. 1 he velocity of the wheel per fecond. For finding
taken from the table in art. 43, and multiplied ^^^ number

'by 60, and divided by the circumference of ti®ns cf the
(the wheel, quotes the number of revolutions wheel,
of the VvAheel per minute, and is column 4.

4. The number of revolutions of the wheel y>\uo of the
per minute, multiplied ijy the number of cogs 'tone.

in all the driving wheels fuccefTively, and that
iprodud divided by the pro dud: of all the lead-
ing Vvdieels, quotes the number of revolutions
! of the (lone per minute, and is column 9, double
igear, for 5 feet ftones ; and column 12, fnigle
I gear, for 6 feet ilones.

I 5. The cubochs of power required to drive To find the
jthellone, by table in art. 63, divided by the quantity of
virtual or eifedlive defcent, which is half the mSed.'^^'
head added to the (fall or) diameter of the
wheel, quotes the cubic feet of v\^ater required
per fecond to drive the Hone, and is column

28 Pf Overshot Mills. Art, 73, |

CHAP. I. ^. The cubic feet required, divided by the ;

Rule to find velocity you intend the water to have in the ;

the canal, canal, quotes the area of a feftion of the ca- I
nal. The width multiplied by the depth, muft |
always produce this area. See art. 64. I

7. The number of cogs in the wheel, mul-?'
tiplied by the quarter inches in the pitch, pro-j
duces tiie circumference of the pitch circle ; |
which, multiplied by 7, and divided by 22, 1
quotes the diameter in quarter inches ; which, {
reduced to feet and parts, is column 15. Theii
reader may here at once obferve how near thei
cog wheel, in the fmgle gear, will be to the!
water ; that is, how near it is, in fize, equali
to the water-wheel. i

— "■<<S>^^°<S>>'"—

- ^ j

life of the Table.

HAVING, with care, levelled the feat orj
which you mean to build, and found, that af-;
ter deducing i foot for fall below the wheel,!
and a fufficiency for the fmking of the head-^
race, according to its length and fize, andj
having a total defcent remaining fufficient foL
an overiliot wheel, fuppofe 17 feet; thenlooi]
in column i of the table, for the defcent nearj
eft to it, v/e End 16,74 ^^^^j ^^^d againPt it tj
wheel 14 feet diameter; head above the whee
2,7 feet ; revolutions of the wheel per minut(|
11,17; (and double gears, to give a 5 feet lloncj
98,7 revolutions per minute ; alfo, fmgle gears |
to give a 6 feet ftone 76,6 revolutions per mil
nute) the cubic feet of water required for a -j

Art.yi* Of Overshot Mills. 2<j

feet ftone 7,2 feet per fecond, and the area of CHAP. L
a feftion of the canal 5 feet, about 2 feet deep,
and 2,5 feet wide.

If you choofe to proportion the fize of the
ftones exaftly to fuit the power of the feat, do
it as directed in art. 63. Ail the reft can be
proportioned by the rules by which the table
is calculated.

• THE M I L L - W R I G H T's TABLE
For overshot MILLS.

CALCULATED FOR FIVE FEET STONES, DOUBLE GEAR, AND SIX FEET
S-PONES, SINGLE GEAR.

3" cr •-I-

re f» S
P 3 S

feet ift.

io,5ij 9
ii,74jio

p p- p 3 3
■-f o ^ d fi)
O O § ?■ O

Double gear, 5 feet
ftones.

(33

►1

^ 1;?

14,2

15^47
i6,74|i4

J7;99ii5
19,2816

20.5 J17 .
21,8 i8|3

24,34'2o
25^5 4'^ I
26,8622
27,9923

feet

h74.^3>
1,94 12,6

2,2 |l2,
2,47:11.54

2,74;", 17
2,99 10,78
3,28 10,4

j 29,2724

4,34
4,54

10, r
9,8

9,54

9.3

9,1
4,86 • 8,9

4.99

5'27
5'45
5>57
5^77

5 '9'^
6,15

6,4

8,7

8,5

8.3

8,19

8,0'

7,93r^
7,75\^
7,631

54
54
60

66
66

72
78
78
78
84
84
88
88
96
()6
96
^6
96
04

n I ]33

0 1

23
23
■";>
21

23'
24

25
04125

12 26

3 <

t:' o

! (^

Single gear, 6

•^ 0

feet ftones.

Ul HK

' ^

S^re

!=s

S "-f

u re

rr 0

i.t

a"^

2 <

C C

3 p

? 5"

• >-t

{IT

■-fj

tl-

f*l

re
>-t

1-1

re re

?;?'"»

f?D. re'

3 o O

a. !:t,3

cu. ft. Tup. ft ft. inch

O fS

r-f t-t

n ts'

B" <T)
4^0q

4818

4817
4817

48] 1 7
48J18
48117
48)18

u|.7

48117

Z1817

48
48

102,9
98,
96,

97^

99'3
98,7

60 rips, I

18 q8, 601078, {

66'ii!75,6;

66:1079,2!

84|i2J8o,7i

96 1 4176,61

98,3| 96|i3|8i,9|

99'5| 1 20^ 1 6'76, I

96,6 ;i2o'i5'8o,8;

97, |i28i6'78,4j

98,3,i28'i5,'8i,4

100, 1128:15179,3!

17! 98,3li28'i5'77,6'

i7jioo,5 128 1481,4

czi»r8 100, 2J -
■- ■ I I

5417103, I -

54:17101, = -

5417! 90,61 .

54Jr8joo,2| -

541 1 8| 99, I -

54|i8jioo,i| -

54f'8 98/1 -

10 1 1

11,46

10,3
9,34
8,53
7,92
7,2

^,77
6,4

5>32i

5.04
4,81

4,57

4,34

4,19

3,82

3.7
3,6
3'4

6:97if

7--5\

9'-5^

^'^•■9^lt^
I3:6i^

11,46
ioj3

9.34

8,53
7,92

7,2

^,77
6,4

5,5614:5-42^
5,32
5,04
4,81

4,57
4,34
4,19

4,
3.82

3.7
3,6
3'4

Art. ji. Of Overshot Mills. 31

c H AP. I.

Ohfcrvatiofis on the Tabic.

, I. IT appears, that lingle gear does not single gear
inuch fuit this conitrud:ion : becaufe, where '^'^^^"^^^"i^

, 11 1 1 . • ' r ovcrlhot

the water-wheels are low, their motion is 10 wheeis,hioh
flow that the cog-wheels (if made large enough or low.
to give liifficient motion to the ftone, v/ithout
having the trundle too fmali, fee art. 23) will
touch the water : And again, when the water-
'wheele are high, above 20 feet, the cog-v/heels
require to be fo high, in order to give motion
to the ftone without having the trundle too
fmall, that they become unwieldy, and the
huflc too high, fpindle ihort, &;c. fo as to be
inconvenient. Therefore, fmgle gear feems
to fuit overfliots only where the diameter of
the water-wheel is between 12 and 18 feet;
and even with them, the v/ater-wheel will
have to run rather too fad, or the trundle be
rather too fmall, and the Hones fliould be 6 feet
diameter at leafl.

2. I have, in the preceding tables, allov/ed
the vv^ater to pafs along the canal with 1,5 feet
per fecond velocity ; but have fince concluded
that I foot per fecond is nearer the proper mo-
tion ; that is, about 20 yards per minute ;
then the cubic feet required per fecond, will
be the area of a fe6lion of the canal, as in co-
lumn 14 of this table.

3. Although I have calculated this table for
the velocities of the wheels to vary as tiie
fquare roots of their diameters, v/hich makes
a 30 feet wheel move 11,99 ^^^^ P^^ fecond,
and a 12 feet v/heel to move 7,57 feet per fe-

33 Of Overshot Mills. Art, yg.

C H AP. I. cond ; yet they V\dll do to have equal
velocity, and head, which is the common
practice among mill-wrights. But, for the
reafbns I have mentioned in art. 43, I prefer
giving them the velocity and head affigned in
the table, in order to obtain fteady motion.

4. Many have been deceived, by obferving;
the exceeding flow and fteady motion of fome|
very high overfhot wheels working forge or:
furnace bellows, concluding therefrom, that
they will work equally fteady with a very flowl
as with any quicker motion, not confidering,!;
perhaps, that it is the principle of the bellows
that regulates the motion of the wheel, which
is different from any other refiftance, for it
foon becomes perfectly equable ; therefore the
motion will be uniform, which is not the cafe
with any kind of mills.

5. Many are of opinion, that water is not
well applied by an overftiot wheel ; becaufe,
fay they, thofe buckets near above or below
the centre, aft on too fhort a lever. In en-
deavouring to correal this error, I have di-i
vided the fall of the overlhot Vv^heel, fig. 33,
plate iV, into feet, by dotted lines. Now,!
by art. 53 and 54, every cubic foot of wateij
on the wheel produces an equal quantity oi|
power in defcending each foot perpendicular.!
called a cuboch of power ; becaufe, where thei
lever is fhorteft, there is the greateft quantity
of water within the foot perpendicular ; or, ir
other words, each cubic foot of water is Si
much longer time, and paiTes a greater dif-i
tange, in defcending a foot perpendicular.!
than where it is longeft ; which exaftly com^:

Of Ml LLs MOVED BY Re-action. 33

jenfates for the deficiency in the length of
evpr. And, confidering that the upper and
ovver parts of the wheel does not run av/ay
Tom the gravity of the water, fo much as the
>reafl of the wheel, we mud conclude, that
:he upper and lower feet of perpendicular de-
fcent (in theory) actually produce more pov/-
sr than the middle two feet — ^But (in pradice)
die lower foot is entirely loft, by the fpiihng
of the water out of the buckets. See this de-
monftrated, art. 54.

•«S>iO'<S»

Of Mills moved by Rc-aBlon.

I W E have now treated of the four different
kinds of mills that are in general ufe. There
jare others, the invention or improvements of
the late ingenious James Rumfey, which move
by the re-a6lion of the water. One of thefe
is faid to do well where there is much back-
water ; it being fmall, and of a true circular
form, the back-water does not refift it much.
I ftiall fay but little of thefe, fuppofing the pro-
iprietors mean to treat of them ; but may fay,
jthat there appears to me but two principles by
Iwhich v/ater can be applied to move mill-
jwheels, viz. Percufiioa and Gravity.

For the different efie^ls of equal quantities
of water, with equal perpendicular defcents,
applied by thefe different principles, fee art. 8
i and 68.
! F

;4 Of Mills moved by Re-action. |

Water may be applied, by percuffion, two
ways, viz. by action (whicii is when it ftrikes'
the floats of a wheel) and by re-adlion, which
is when it iffues from v\dthin the wheel, and, \
by its re-a6lion, moves it romid ; and thefe i
two are equal, by 3d general law of motion, i
art. 7. ■ i

For the efFetSls of centrifugal force, and the!
inertia of the water, on this application ofre-ac-l
tion, fee axioms I and II, art. i ; and art. 13. ;
The principle of inertia will operate in pro- i
portion to the quantity of water ufed ; there- 1
fore this application Vvill fuit high heads better]
than low ones.

Water may be applied, by gravity, two!
ways, viz. either by fpouting it high on the
v/heel, into tight buckets, as on common over-
fhots, or by caufmg the whole head of water
to prefs on the floats, at the lov/er fide of the
wheel, which is fo conllrufted that the wa-
ter cannot efcape, but as the wheel moves,
and at the fame time keeping clear of the pa-
radoxical principle mentioned in arts. 48 and:
59 ; which cannot be done, unlefs the floats;
are made to move on pivots, fo as to fold in
on one fide of the wheel, and open out, to re- '
ceive the weight of the water, on the other. I
And thefe two applications are equal in theory, i
as will appear plain by art. 54, fig. 20; yet
they may diifer greatly in practice.*

* In the year 1786, I invented and made a model of a '
wheel of this foncture, intending thereby to apply ileam to j
propel land-carriages, and exhibited a drawing thereof to the
legiilature of Maryland, and obtained a patent (for my im- j
proveinents in nulls, and alfo) for applying fteani to land- !
carriages; in that Ttate ; but could not attend to pUt-it in prac-

v?>^ «<;?^ '^^^ ^^J'^ '^i'^ '-^^ '^i^ '•<i-^ '-^^ '-^^^^ *

CHAPTER II.

— <^^ —
Rules and Calculations. Art. 74.

THE fundamental principle, on which is R.ulesfor
founded all rules for calculating the mo- calculating
tion of wheels, produced by a combination 01
wheels, and for calculating the number of
cogs to be put in wheels, to produce any mo-
tion that is required, fee in art. 20 ; which is
as follov/s :

If the revolutions that the firil moving wheel Principles
makes in a minute, be multiphedby the num~ Jj^e v are^
ber of cogs in all the drivino- wheels fuccef- founded.

to to

fively, and the produ6l noted ; and the revo-
lutions of the laft leading wheel be iTiultiplied
by the number of cogs in all the leading wheels
fucceifively, and the produ6l noted ; thefe pro-
duces will be equal in all pofllble caies. Hence
we deduce the foilowinp- fmiple rules :

ift. For finding the motion of the mill-ftone;
the revolutions of the water-wheel, and cogs
in the wheels, being given,

tice. Since which time, the late ingenious James Rumfey
has applied fleam to a wheel of this Itrufture, I bear, with
great fuccefs, and obtained a patent, in Europe^, for the in-
Jvention; which, probably, was original with liim alfo, .as it
: frequently happens, that tv/o perfons, reafoning right on a-
[mechanical fubject, think alike, and invent the lame tr'fTjr> ■
i without any communication with each other- He hi3 alia
I applied this wheel to water-mills, which I did not inrcnd'to.
I do. This may properly be called the Valve v/heeL

3^ Rules and Calculations. Chap, IL

Art. 74. RULE.

To find the Multiply the revolutions of the water-wheel
of th ^ft° " P^^ minute, by the number of cogs in all the
driving wheels fucceflively, and note the pro-
duct ; and multiply the number of cogs or
rounds in all the leading wheels fucceflively, ^
and note the product ; then divide the firft !
produft by the laft, and the quotient is the!
number of revolutions of the ilone per mi:j
nute. j

EXAMPLE. j

Given, the revolutions of the water- j

wheel per minute - - - - 10,4'

No. of cogsinthemaftercog- 2 o -^ '

wheel \ i T\ ' '

TVT rj • ^u ^ > Drivers, i

iN o. or do. m the counter cog- P o\ '

wheel S !

No. of rounds in the wallower 23 ?t a ^^ \

No. of do. in the trundle - 17 ^ ~ ^* j

Then 10,4, the revolutions of the waters I
wheel, multiplied by 78) the cogs in the mai-|
ter wheel, and 48, the cogs in the counterl
wheel, is equal to 38937,6 ', and 23 rounds inj
the wallower, niultiplied by 17, rounds in the!
trundle, is equal to 391, by which we dividei
38937,6, and it quotes 99,5, the revolutions!
of the ftone per minute ; which are the cal-!
culations for a 1 6 feet wheel, in the overfhoij |
table. ^

2d. For finding the number of cogs to he
- put in the wheels, to produce any number oi
revolutions required to the millftone, or any
wheel,

,M'

Chap, II. Rules anp Calculations, 37

RULE. A^^-74.

Take any fuitable number of cogs for all To fo^ the
the wheels, except one ; then multiply the F^P^J"""^-

1 • r 1 r n , ^ -^ bcr ot cogs,

revolutions or the nrit mover per mmute, by ^^c.
$11 the drivers, except the one wanting (if it
be a driver) and the revolutions of the wheel
required, by all the leaders, and divide the
greatefl: product by the leaft, and it will quote
the number of cogs required in the vv^heel to
produce the defired revolutions.

Note, If any of the wheels be for ftraps,
take their diameter in inches and parts, and
multiply and divide with them, as with the

cogs.

EXAMPLE.

Given, the revolutions of the water-
wheel _ _ - - -
And we^chufe cogs in mafler ? g

wheel C ^

Ditto in the counter v/heel - 48
And rounds in the wallower 23

The number of the trundle is required, to
give the the (tone 99 revolutions.

Then 10,4 multiplied by 78, and 48, is
equal to 38937,6; and 99, multipUed by 23,
is equal to 2277, by V\^hich divide 38937,6, and
it quotes 16,66 J in{lGa4 of which, I take the
nearefl whole number, 17, for the rounds in
the trundle, and find, by rule ill:, that it pro-
duces 99,5 revolutions, as required.

For the exercife of the learner, I haye con-, circle of
ftrudled fig. 7, plate XI ; wdiich I call a circle motion,
of motion, and which ferves to prove the fun-

Rules and Calculations. Chap. IL i;

damental principle on wiiich the rules are
founded ; the firft Ihaft being alfo the laft of
the circle.

A is^ a cog-wheel of 20 cogs, and is a driver.

B do. 24 — leader.

C do. 24 — driver.

D do. 30 — leader.

E do. 25 — driver. -

F do. 30 — leader.

G do. 36 — driver. ^

H do. 20 — leader.

But if we trace the circle the backward .
way, the leaders become drivers.

I is a ftrap-wheei 14^^ inches diameter, driver.
K do. 30 do. — leader,

L cog-wheel 12 cogs, — driver.

M do. 29 do. — leader.

MOTION OF THE SHAFTS.

The upright fhaft, and
firfl driver.

— AH

revs.

in a min.

do.

which is

the fliaft of a hopperboy.

If this circle be not fo formed, as to give '
the firfl and lafl fhafts (which are here the
fame) exaftly the fame motion, one of the
fhafts mufl break as foon as they are put in 1
motion.

Chap. 11. Rules and Calculations. 30

The learner may exercife the rules on this Art. 74.
circle, until he can form a fimilar circle of his
own ; and then he need never be afraid to un-
dertake to calculate any motion, &c. after-
wards.

I omit Ihev/ing the work for finding the
motion of the feveral ihafts in this circle, and
the wheels to produce faid motion ; but leave
it for the learner to pradlife the rules on.

EXAMPLES.

ift. Given, the firft mover AH 36 revolu-
tions per minute, and firft driver A 20 cogs,
leader B 24 ; required, the revolutions of Ihaft
BC. Anfwer, 30 revolutions per minute.

2d. Given, firlT: mover 36 revolutions per
minute, drivers 20 — 24 — 25, and leaders 24
-^30 — 30 ; required, the revolutions of the
laft leader. Anfwer, 20 revolutions per mi-
nute.

3d. Given, .firft mover 20 revolutions per
minute, and firft driver, ftrap wheel, 14^ inches,
cog-wheel 12, and leader, ftrap-wheel, 30
inches, cog-wheel 29 ; required, the revolu-
Itions of the laft leader, or laft fhaft. Anfwer,
4 revolutions. •

4th. Given, firft mover 36 revolutions, driver
A 20, C 24, leader B 24, D 30 ; required, the
number of leader F, to produce 20 revolutions
per minute. Anfwer, 30 cogs.

5th. Given, firft mover 36 revolutions per
minute, driver A 20, C 24, E 25, driver pully
14^ inches diameter, L 12, and leader B 24,
D 3O) F 30, M 29 ; required, the diameter of
ftrap-wheel K, to give lliaft 4 four revolutions
per minute. Anfwer, 30 inches diameter.

Rules

40 Rules and Calculations. Chap, 11.

Art. :^4. The learner may, for exeixife, work the

above queilions, and every other that he can
propofe on the circle.

Art. 75. MATHEMATICIANS have laid down the

following proportions for finding the circum-
ference of a circle by its diameter, or the di-
ameter by the circumference given, viz.
To find the As I is to 3,1416, fo is the diameter to the
diameter & circumference ;. and as 3,1416 is to i, fo is
rei^ceofcir- ^^^ circumference to the diameter: Or, as 7
cles. is to 22, fo is the diameter to the circumfe-

rence ; and as 22 is to 7, fo is the circum-
ference to the diameter. The laft proportion
makes the diameter a little the largeft ; there-
fore it fuits mill-wrights beft for finding the
pitch circle ; becaufe the fum of the diflances,
from centre to centre, of all the cogs in a
wheel, makes the circle too ihort, efpecially
where the number of cogs are few, becaufe
the diftance is taken in ftrait lines, Inftead of
the circle. In a wheel of 6 cogs only, the cir-
cle will be fo much too fhort, as to give the
diameter ^ parts of the pitch £)r diftance of
the cogs too fhort. Hence We deduce the fol-
lowing

RULE FOR FINDING THE PITCH CIRCLE.

To find the Multiply the number of cogs in the wheel,
^^^\ ^^^^^^ by the quarter inches in the pitch, and that
produd: by 7, and divide by 22, and the quo-
tient is the diameter in quarter inches, which
is to be reduced to feet.

Chap. It ■ Rules and, Calculations. 41

EXAMPLE. Art. 75.

Given, 84 cogs, 4^ inches pitch ; required,
the diameter of the pitch circle.

Then, by the rule, 84 multiplied by 18 and
7, is equal to 10584; which, divided by 22,
is equal to 481 —quarter inches, equal to 10
feeti— inches, for the diameter of the pitch
circle required.

A TRUE, fimple, and expeditious method ^^t. 76.
of finding the diameter of the pitch circle, is
to find it in meafures of the pitch itfelf that
you ufe.

RULE.

Multiply the number of cogs by 7, and di- New rule
vide by 22, and you have the diameter of the ^^^ pltdi^
pitch circle, in meafures of the pitch, and 22 circle.
parts of faid pitch.

EXAMPLE.

Given, 78 cogs ; required, the diameter of
the pitch circle. Then, by the rule,

7
C Meafures of the pitch for

22)546(2441 < the diameter of the circle

44 (^required,

106
88

Rules and Calculations. Chap. IL I

Half of which diameter, 12^ of the pitch, is ,
the radius, or half diameter, by which the
circle is to be fwept.

To ufe this rule. Set a pair of compafies to j
the pitch, and fcrew them fad, not to be al- !
tered until the •^vheel is pitched ; divide the '
pitch into 22 equal parts: Then ftep 12 fteps I
on a ftrait line with the pitch compafles, and i
9 of thefe equal parts of the pitch, makes the \
radius that is to defcribe the circle. [

To fave the trouble of dividing the pitch for I
every wheel, the workman may mark the dif- i
ferent pitch, which he commonly ufes, on the I
edge of his two foot rule (or make a little rule 1
for the purpofe) and carefully divide them 1
there, where they will be always ready for
ufe. See plate IV, fig. 35. i

By thefe rules, I have calculated the fol- '
lowing table of the radius's of pitch circles of 1
the different v/heels commonly ufed, from ^ j
to 136 cogs. I

A TABLE OF THE PITCH CIRCLES of the COG-WHEELS

COMMONLY USED, FROM 6 TO 1 36 COGS, BOTH IN MEASURES
OF THE PITCH, AND IN FEET, INCHES, AND PARTS.

=»x<

f«

0 ;j

-3 e-

3 g

3' -'-5

w ? g. c'

-a fJ

5' 5-.

3 i'

(T)

to ^

ja 0

Is--^

w 2 > 0

c- -• 3- M

p 0.

" ►-. ^ ij ^.. 0 (T) 0

0 c>

3 f;

■"i :x

"* 0 <

-= ri 3-

■n

•-t p-

0 ;3- 3 S ;3- J ^. =

n
n

2 ni

"S. r-

0 S-

t:' 0

'~^ 0 ^"3.
y 0 -^ 0

-1 ^- 0 fX

0 - B '-1

►+. S 3 a

3-
0

p
0

0 _

~ 0

rt cr

"3. 2.

0 0

" ;.^ ^ S :^ s K "

<■» ?L n ^ T^ ^'

•1 :. Si 3 =• s i

"2.

U- ?;

1 U'

CO 7 a n>

Jr n

a 01 1 -i c ft n>

P
■-1

0
re

" 7 "S

rr*

TO 0^ t^

to
to

2 ':

2 :

I : 10

I :

1 1

: 1 1

3.5

2 :

0 ■

1 : 10

• 8

6,7

3 =

I :

I2i

I : II

i4i

10,2

3 •

2 .

2: 0

• I

: 2

13,6

4 •

0 .

19^-

2: I

i-^

17,1

4 =

2: I

20,5

4 •

3 •

2 : 2

loi

i>9

2: 3

. 12

5^3

2: 4

8,8

2= 5

12,2

1 1

2: 8

I5;7

2:11

• 14

19,1

1 1

3 ' 0

0,6

3 = I

• 10

4,1

3= 4

7.5

66iio

)

1 1

b: 8

• 1 1

I r

II,

72|il

\4- 0

: 16

14,5

= 13

7812

4: 4

: 2

: 21

18,

. 0

■ 4

84' 1 3

14 : 8

• 4

21,5

: 3

: 17

8814

14 : II

: 3

3.'

: I

: 8

90:14

5 ■ 0

: 4

6,5

I ^

: 21

96,15

5= 4

: 8

10,

1 1

: 0

: 12

104 16

c : i 0

6 6

• 2

13.5

I r

: 2

• 3

112 17

■6: 3

20 6

17,

: 3

: 16

1 20' 1 9

6: 9

12 7

20,5

; X

12820

7 : 2

2 .

4 7

: 2

136 2 1

7 •■ 7 ■

18 8

44 Rules and Galcwlations. Chap, II,

Art, 76.

Ufe of the foregoing Table.

SUPPOSE you are making a cog-wheel
with 66 cogs ; look for the number in the ift
or 4th column, and againft it, in the 2d or 5th
column, you find 10,11 ; that is, 10 fleps of
the pitch (you ufe) on a llrait line, and 1 1 of
22 equal parts of faid pitch added, makes the
radius that is to defcribe the pitch circle.

The 3d, 6th and 7th columns, contain the
radius in feet, inches, quarters, and 22 parts
of a quarter ; which may be of ufe in roughing
out timber, and fixing the centres that the
wheels are to run in, fo that they may gear
to the right depth : But, on account of the
difference in the parts of the fame fcales or
rules, and the difficulty of fetting the com-|
paifes exadlly, they can never be true enough
for the pitch circles. _ ,.

RULE COMMONLY PllACTISED.

Common Divide the pitch into 1 1 equal parts, and 1

rule not true i^X^Q in youF compafTes 7 of thofe parts, and

iiep on a llrait line, counting 4 cftgs for every

fiep, until you come up to the number in your

wheel ; if there be an odd one at lafl;, take

. 1-4 of a ilep, if 2 be left, take 1-2 of a Rep,

^ if 3 be left, take 3-4 of a ftep, for them ; and

thefe fleps, added, makes the radius orfweep-

ftaff of the pitch, circle : But on account of the

difficulty of making thefe divifions fufficiently

exad;, there is little truth in this rule— and

where the number of cogs are few, it will

inake the diameter too iliort, for the reafon

iiientionecl before.

Chap. 11. Rules and Calculations. 45

The following geometrical rule, is more ^^^- 7^-
true and convenient, in fome inftanccs.

RULE.

Draw the line AB, plate IV, lig. 34, and ^'f^-'^g,^
draw the line 22,0 at random ; then take the conitruAed
pitch in your compaiTes, and beginning at the to iiiew the
point 22, flep II fteps towards A, and 31-2 pUch circle
ileps to point X, towards O ; draw the line of many
AC through the point X ; draw the line DC ^^^^^ ^*
parallel to AB ; and, without having altered
your compaffes, begin at point O, and Hep
both ways, as you did on AB ; then, from
|the refpedlive points, draw the crofs lines pa-
rallel to o 22 ; and the diflance from the point,
iwhere they crofs the line AC, to the line AB,
jwill be the radius of the pitch circles for the
[number of cogs refpedively, as in the figure.
|If the number of cogs be odd, fay 21, the radi-
us will be betv/een 20 and 22.
I This will alfo give the diameter of all wheels,
that have few cogs, too fliort ; but where the
number of coo-s is above 20, the error is im-
perceptible.

I All thefe rules are founded on the propor-
jtion, as 22 is to 7, fo is the circumference to
ithe diameter.

Rules and Calculhtions,

Chap, //,

Art. 77.

A TABLE OF ENGLISH DRY MEASURE. ,

THE bulhel con- ;
tains 2150,4 folidi
inches. Thereforej
to meafure the con-i
tents of any garner, |
take the followino- !

Solid
inche

..\

33i

6 1 Pint.

268

8 8 Icallon

537'

616

2 jpeck

2150

464

Bufliel.N..,

RULE.

Rule for Multiply its length in inches, by its breadth!

meafuring in inchcSj and that produd: by its height iAJ
of^o?!-™ ii^ches, and divide the laft produd by 2150,4,!

and it will quote the bufliels it contains. |

But to fliorten the work, decimally ; be-'

caufe 2150,4 folid inches are 1,244 folid f^^t,!

multiply the length, breadth, and height in;

feet, and decimal parts of a foot by each other,^

and divide by 1,244; ^"^ ^^ ^^ quote the;

contents in bufnels. !

'EXAMPLE.

i
Given, a garner 6,25 feet long, 3,5 feet;

wide, 10,5 feet high ; required, its cootentsl
in buihels. Then 6,25 muitipiled by 3,5 and
10,5, is equal to 229,687 ; which, divided b)l
1,244, quotes 184 bufliels and 6 tenths. i

To find the contents of a hopper, take thCj
following

RULE. I

1^0 meafure. Multiply the length by the v/idth at the top:
tiie contents ^,^^ that produa by one third of the depths

or a hopper. i / i

'^hap, II, Rules and Calculations. 47

neafuring to the very point, and divide by An. 77.
:he contents of a bufhel, either in inches or
:lecimals, as you have wrought, and the quo-
':ient will be the contents in bufhels.

EXAMPLE.

, Given, a hopper 42 inches fquare at top,
[md 24 inches deep ; required, the contents in
bulhels.

Then 42 multiplied by 42 and 8, is equal
to 141 1 2 folid inches; which, divided by
'2150,4, quotes 6,56 bulhels^ or a little more
than 61-2 bufhels.

To make a garner to hold any given quan- To make a
Itity, having two of its fides given, take the f^J[f^^^^^^

Following quantity.

RULE.

I Multiply the contents of i bufhel by the
number of bufhels the garner is to hold ; then
multiply the given fides into each other, and
'divide the firft by the lafl product ; and the
quotient will be the fide wanted, in the fame
jmeafure you have wrought in.

EXAMPLE.

I Given, two fides of a garner 6,25* by 10,5
feet; required, the other fide, to hold 184,6
bufhels.

Then 1,244 rnultiplied by 184,6, is equal
to 229,642 ; which, divided by the product of
Ithe two fides 6^,62^9 the quotient is 3,5 feet

for the fide wanted.

i To make a hopper to hold any given quan- Ditto, a
itity, having the depth given. bopper.

Art. 78.

Rfles and Calculations, (i^fc. Chap, IT,

RULE. ;

Divide the inches contained in the buihels
it i3 to hold, by 1-3 the depth in inches ; aiidi
the quotient will be the fquare of one of the I
fides at the top in inches. Given^ the depth!
24 inches ; required, the fides to hold 6,56,
buihels.

Then 6,^6 multiplied by 2150,4, is equal!
to 14107,624 ; which, divided by 8, quotes!
1764, the fquare root of which is 42 inches ;;
which is the length of the fides of the hopper'
wanted. i

CHAPTER

IIL

;<c<^>.

Of the fi-
gures de-
fcribed by
the cogs of
Avheels in
motion.

%• 37.

Which di-
rc'ils to the
proper for-
mat ion of
their cogs.

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GEARS, AND FGRMS^!

QF COGS. i

IN order to conceive a juft idea of the m oft i
fuitable form or fliape for cogs in cog-!
v/heels, we muft confider, that they defcribe,|
with refped: to the pitch circles, a figure call-j
ed an Epicycloid.

And when One wheel works in cogs fet in aj
ftrait line, fuch as the carriage of a faw-mill,j
the cogs or rounds, rnoving out and in, foririj
a curve figure called a Cycloid. |

To defcribe which, let us fuppofe the largej

circle in plate V, fig. 37, to move on thej

'ftrait line from O to A ; then the point O it

Ckap, Hi, Of Spur Gears* 49

its periphery will defcribe the arch O D A, Art. y^^
called a Cycloid; and we may conceive,by the
way, that the curve joins the line, what fliould
"be the form of the point of the cog.

Again, fuppofe the fmall circle to run round
[ the large one ; then the point o in the fmall
I circle, will defcribe the arch obc, called an
Epicycloid ; by which we may conceive the
form the point of the cogs fhould be. But
in common pra6lice we generally let the cogs
extend but a ftiort diftance paft the pitch cir-
cle ; fo that the form of the cogs is not fo par-
ticular.

Of spur Gears. ^j.^.^

79'

THE principle of Spur Gears, is that of p^ncipiesof
two cylinders rolling on each other, with their Spur Gears.
ftiafts or axis truly parallel to each other. —
Here the touching parts move with equal ve-
locity, therefore have but little fri6tion. And to
prevent thefe cylinders from (lipping, we are
obliged to indent them, or to fet in cogs. —
And here it appears to me, that the pitch of Thepkchof
the driving wheel Ihould be a little larger than Jjjoy'jj^br
the leading wheel, for the following reafons : tbelargeft.

1 . If there is to be any Hipping, it will be
much eafier for the driver to flip a little pall
the leader, than for the cogs to have to force
the leader a little before the driver ; which
would be very hard on them.

2. If the cogs Iliould bend any by the ftrefs
of the work (as they furely do ; becaufe lib.
falling on a beam a foot fquare, will jar it,

Of Spur Gears. Chap, IIL

n- which cannot be done without bending it a
httie) this will caufe thofe that are coming
into gear to touch too foon, and rub hard at
entering.

3. It is much better for cogs to rub hard as
they are going out of gear, than as they ardi
coming in ; becaufe then they work with the
grain of the wood ; whereas at entering they
work againft it, and would wear much fafter.
The advantage of this kind of gear is, we .
can make the cogs as wide as we pleafe, fo.
that their bearing may be fo large that they
will not cut each other^ but only polifh and
wear fmooth ; therefore they will laft a long
time.

Their difadvantages are,
I ft. That if the wheels be of different fizes,
and the pitch circles are not made to meet ex-
adly, they will not run fmooth. And,

2d. We cannot change the direction of the
fnafts fo conveniently.

38. Fig* 3^j plate IV, is two fpur wheels work-

ing into each other ; the dotted lines Ihew the
pitch circles, which muft always meet exaft-
ly. The ends of the cogs are made circular,
as is common; but if they were made of the
true epicycloids that would fuit the fize of
the wheels, they would work fmoother, with
' lefs friftion.

39- Fig. 59-13 a fpur and face wheel or wallow-

er ; whofe pitch circles fhould always meet
exadily alfo.

The rule for defcribing the fides of the cogs
of a forin near the figure of an epicycloid, is
2,^ follows, viz. Defcribe a circle a little infide

ncy(

Chap, III, Of Face Gears. 51

of the pitch circle, for the point of your com- ^^^' 79*
pafles to be fet in, fo as to defcribe the fides of
the cog as the four cogs at A, fig. 38 — 39, as
near as you can to the curve of the epicycloid
that is formed by the little wheel's moving
round the great one ; the greater the difference
between the great and fmall wheels, the great-
er diftance muft this circle be infide of the
pitch circle ; of this the practitioner is to be
the judge, as no certain rule is yet formed,
that I know of,

Of Face Gears, Art. 80.

THE principle of Face Gears, is that of principle of
two cylinders rolling with the fide of one on Face Gears,
the end of the other, their axis being at right
angles. Here the greater the bearing, and
the lefs the diameter of the wheels, tlie great- They have
er will be the frii^ion ; becaufe the touching m"chfnc-
parts move with different velocities, therefore
the friction will be great.

The advantages of this kind of gear are. Their ad-
I I ft. Their cogs ftand parallel to each other ; ^^"^ages.
i therefore moving them out or in gear a little,
! does not alter the pitch of the bearing parts
I of the cogs, and they will run fmoother wh*"!!
j their centres are out of place, than fpur gears.
2d. They ferve for changing the diredlion
of the fliafts.

The difadvantages are,
/ ift. The frnallnefs of the bearing, fo that Theirdifad-
they wear out very fail.* van.^agts.

* For if the bearins; of the cogs be fmall, and the frrefs
fo great that they cut one another, they will wear exceed-

52 Of Face Gears, Chap, ///,

Art. 80. 2d. Their great frid:ion and rubbing of

parts.

The cogs for fmall wheels are generally
round, and put in with round Ihanks. Great
care Ihould be taken in boring the holes for the
cogs, with a machine to dire6l the auger itralt,
that the diftance of the cogs may be equal,
without dr effing. And all the holes of all the
fmall wheels in a mill fhould be bored with
one auger, and made of one pitch ; then the
miller may keep by him a quantity of cogs
ready turned, to a gauge to fui\ the auger,
and when any fail, he can drive out the old
ones, and put in a new fet, without much lofs
of time.

Fig. 40, plate V, reprefents a face cog-
wheel working into a trundle ; fhewing the
neceffity of having the corners of the fides of
the cogs fniped off in a cycloidical form, to
give liberty for the rounds to enter between
the cogs, and pafs out again freely. To dd-

pireaions fcribe the fides of the cogs of the right fhape

tor torminp- , 1 1 i r- i •

the cogs. to meet the rounds when they get tairly mtol
gear, as at c, there muft be a circle defcribed
on the ends of the cogs, a little outfide of the
pitch circle, for the point of the compafles to
be fet in, to fcribe the ends of the cogs ; for if
the point be fet in the pitch circle, it will leave
the inner corners too full, and make the out-
er ones too fcant. The middle of the cog is
to be left ftrait from bottom to top, or nearly
fo, and the fide nearly flat at the diflance ofi .
half the diameter of the round from the tvA,\.

ing fafl; but if it be To large, and the ftrefs fo light, that
•jheY pniy polifh one another, they will laft very long'

Chap, III, Of Fac£ Gears. 53

.the corners only being fniped off to make the ^''^- ^°-
ends of the Ihape in the figure ; becaufe when
the cog comes into gear fully, as at c, there
is the chief ftrefs, and there the bearing fhould
he as large as pofTible. The fmaller the cog-
wheel, the larger the trundle, and the wider
the cogs, the more will the corners require to
te fniped off. Suppofe the cog-wheel to turn
from 40 to b, the cog 40, as it enters, will
bear on the lower corner, unlefs it be fuffici-
ently fniped off; when it comes to c, it will
be fully in gear, and if the pitch of the cog-
wheel be a little larger than that of the trun-
dle, the cog a will bear as it goes out, and
let c fairly enter before it begins to bear.

Suppofe the plumb line A B to hang directly
to the centre of the cog-wheel, the fpindle is
(by many mill-wrights) fet a little before the
line or centre, that the working round or Have
of the trundle may be fair with faid line, and
meet the cog fairly as it comes to bear ; it al-
fo caufes the cogs to enter with lefs, and go
out with more friction. Whether there be any
real advantage in thus fetting the fpindle foot
before the centre plumb line, does not feem
determined.

♦

Of Bevel Gears. Art. Si.

THE principle of Bevel Gears, is that of principles of
two cones rollino- on the furface of each other, ^^^^^ Gear.
their vertexes meeting in a point, as at A,
fig. 41, plate V. Here the touching furfaces
move with equal velocities in every part of the

Art. 8i.
Have but
little fric-
tion.

Rule for
proportion-
ing the
wheels.

Of Bevel Gears-.

Chap. IIU '}

cones; therefore there is but little fridion.
Thefe cones being indented, or fluted with
teeth diverging from the vertex to the bafe,
to prevent tliem from flipping, become bevel
gear ; and as thefe teeth are very fmall at the I
point or vertex of the cone, they may be cut <
off 2 or 3 inches from the bafe, as 19 and 25,
at B ; they then have the appearance of
M^heels,

To niak,e thefe wheels of a fuitable fize for
any number of cogs you choofe to have toi
work into one another, take the following

RULE.

Draw" lines to reprefent your fliafts, in thd
diredion they are to be, with refpeft to each
other, to interfeft at A ; then take from any
fcale of equal parts, either feet, inches, or
quarters, &c. as many as your wheels are tQ
have cogs, and at that diftance from the re-
fpedtive ihafts, draw the dotted lines a b, c d,
for 21 and 20 cogs ; and from where they
crcfs at e, draw e A. On this line, which
makes the right bevel, the pitch circles of the
wheels will meet, to contain that proportion
of cogs of any pitch.

Then to determine the flze of the wheels to
fuit any particular pitch, take from the table
of pitch circles, the radius in meafures of the
pitch, and apply it to the centre of the ihaft,
and the bevel line A e, taking the diftance at
right angles with the fliaft ; and it will fliew
the point in which the pitch circles will meet,
to fuit that particular pitch.

By the i^ame rule, the fizes of the Vv^heels at
B and C are found.

Zhap, in. Of Bevel Gears. 55

Thefe kind of wheels ar6 frequently made An. 81.
)f caft metal, and are faid to do exceeding
yell.

The advantages of this kind of gear are. Their ad-

1 . They have very httle fridion, or Aiding vantage©,,
)f parts.

2. We can make the cogs of any width of
)earing we chufe ; therefore they will wear a
rreat while.

3. By them we can fet the ftiafts in any di-
•edion defired, to produce the necelTary move-
nents.

Their difadvantages are,

1 . They require to be kept exactly of the Difadvan-
ight depth in gear, fo that the pitch circles t^ges.
uft meet, elfe they will not run fmooth, as is

i:he cafe with fpur gears.

2. They are expenfive to make of wood ;
therefore few in this country ufe them.

j The univerfal joint, as reprefented fig- 43, Fig. 43.
Inay be applied to communicate motion, in-
lead of bevel o-ear, where the motion is to be Fp^verfal

o ' loint.

■he fame, and the angle not more than 30 or
\o degrees. This joint may be conftrufted
i)y a crofs, as in the figure, or by 4 pins faften-
pd at right angles on the circumference of a
:ioop or folid ball. It may fometimes ferve its ufe.
jo communicate the motion, inftead of 2 or 3
face wheels. The pivots at the end of the
|:rofs play in the ends of the femicircles. It
|s beil to fcrew the femicircles to the blades,
Ihat they may be taken apart.

56 Of matching Wheels, &c. Chap. IIU

Art. 82. Oj' matching Wheels^ to make the Cogs wear

Even.

GREAT care Ihould be taken in matching
or coupling the wheels of a mill, that their
number of cogs be notfach that the fame cogs
will often meet ; becaufe if two foft ones meet
often, they will both wear away fafter than
the reft, and deftroy the regularity of the pitchy
whereas if they are continually changing,they
will wear regular, even if they are at iirft^,
little irregular.

For finding hov^ often they will revolve be-
fore the fame cogs meet again, take the fol-j
lowing !

RULE.

1. Divide the cogs in the greater wheel by
the cogs in the leffer ; and if there be no re-l
mainder, the fame cogs will meet once every
revolution of the great wheel -

2. If there be a remainder, divide the cogs,
in the leiTer wheel by faid remainder; and if
it divide them equally, the quotient ftiews howj
often the great wheel will revolve before the]
fame cogs meet.

3. But if it will not divide equally, then
the great wheel will revolve as often as there
are cop-s in the fmall wheel, and the fmaljj
v/heei as often as there are cogs in the largy
wheel, before the fame cogs meet ; oftenei
they can never be made to change.

EXAMPLES. ■•

I. Given, wheels 13 and 17 cogs ; required
how often each will revolve before the famij
cogs meet again.

Chap. ttt. Of matching Wheels, <^'c, si

Then 13)17(1
13

Ai-r. 8a.

4)13(3

J 2 Anfwer,

■ — Great wheel 13, and

I Small do. 17 revs.

i—'-A ^S>o3o ■i^»-'

theory of Rollmg Screens and Fans, or Wind- Art. 85.
mills for fcreejiing and fanning the Wheat in
Mills,

LET fig. 42, plate V, reprefent a Rolling Principlesof
Screen and Fan, fixed for cleaning wheat in a ^^l^^^^^ ^^^
merchant-mill. DA the fcreen, AF t:he fan, Fans.
AB the wind tube, 3 feet deep from A to b,
[and 4 iiiches wide, in order that the grain may
have a good diitance to fall thi ough the wind,
'to give time and opportunity for the light
iparts to be carried forward before the heavy
parts. Suppofe the tube to be of equal depth
and width the whole of its length, except
where it communicates with the tight boxes
or garners under it, viz. c for the clean wheat,
S for the fcreenings and light wheat, and C
for the cheat, chaff, &c. Now it i? evident,
if wind be by thef^n drove into the tube at A,
I that if it can efcape no where, it will pafs on
I to B, with the fame force as at A, let the tube
I be of any length or direction; and anything
I which it will move at A, it will carry out at
' B, if the tube be of an equal fize all the way.
It is alfo evident, that if we Ihut the holes
! of the fan at A and F, and let no wind Into it,

I ■ I

58 Of Rolling Screens and Fans. Chap. Ill,

Art. €3. none can be forced into the tube ; hence, the
beft way to regulate the blaft is, to fix Ihutters
Aiding at the air holes, to ^ive more or lefs
feed of air to the fan, fo as to produce a blaft
fufficient to clean the grain.

The grain is let into the fcreen at D, into
the inmoft cylinder, in a fmall ftream. The
fcreen confilts of two cylinders of fieve wire,
the inmoft one has the mefties fo open, as to
pafs all the wheat through it to the outer one,
retaining only the white caps, large gar lick,
and every thing larger than the grain of the
wheat, which falls out at the tail A.

The outer cylinder is fo clofe in the mefti;,
as to retain all good wheat, but fift out the
cheat, cockle, fmall wheat, garlick, and every*
thing lefs than good grains of wheat; the
wheat is delivered out at the tail of the outej*:
'cylinder, which is not quite as long as the i^-
ner one, where it drops into the wind tube ajti
k, and as it falls from a to b, the wind car-
ties off every thing lighter than good wheats
viz. cheat, chaff, light garlic, duft, and light
rotten grains of wheat ; but, in order to efFedl^
this more completely, it Ihould fall at leaft -3 1
feet through the current of wind. j

The clean wheat falls into the funnel b, aB^J
thence into the garner c, over the ftones. Thej
light wheat, fcreenings, &c. fall into garner :
S, and the chaff fettles into the chaff room C.i
The current ilackens pafling over this room,;
and drops the chaff, but refumes its full forc^j '
as foon as it is over, and carries out the dufti \
through the wall at B. To prevent the cur-:
'rent from flackening too much as it paffes over i

Chap. IIL Of Rolling Screens and Fans. 59

S and c, and under the fcreen, make the paf- ^^t. §4-
fages, where the grain comes in and goes out,
as fmall as poffible, not more than half an inch
wide, and as long as neceflary. If the wind
efcapes any where but at B, it defeats the
fcheme, and carries out the duft into the mill.
Or fix valves to ihut the paffages by a weight
or fpring, fo that the weight of the wheat,
6cc. falling on will open them jufl enough
to let it pafs, without fuffering any wind to
efcape.*'

Note, The fan is fet to blow both the wheat
and fcreenings, and carry the duft out.

Note alfo. That the wind cannot efcape in-
to the garners or fcreen room, if they are
tight ; for as foon as they are full, no more
can enter.

By attending duly to the foregoing princi-
ple, we may fix fans to anfwer our purpofes.

The principal things to be obfervedin fixing
fcreens and fans, are,

1 . Give the fcreen i inch to the foot fail,
and between 15 and 18 revolutions in a rhi-
nute.

2. To make the fan blow ftrong enough,
let the wings be 3 feet wide, 20 inches long,
and revolve 140 times in a minute.

i 3. Then regulate the blaft, by giving more

{ or lefs feed of wind.

I 4. Leave no place for the wind to efcape,

I but at the end through the wall.

: 5. Wherever you want it to blow hardeft,

I there make the tube narrowcft.

j * This I have from TiTPothy Kuk, beJng one principle
j ^ his improved fan-

6o ' Or GrUDGEONs. Chaf, IV;

An, 8$. i 6..: Where you want the chafF and cheat to
fall, there make the tube fufficiently wider.

7. Make them blow both the wheat and
fcreenings, and carry the duft clear out of the
m^ill,

8. The wind tube may be of any length,
and either crooked or ftrait, as may bell: luit j
but no where lefs than where the wheat falls,

C H A P T j: R IV,

Art. 84: PF GUDGEONS, THE CAUSE OF THEIR HEAT-
ING AND GETTING LOOSE, AND REMEDIES
THEREFOR,

TH E caufe of Gudgeons heating, is the
exceffive friftion of their rubbing partsj
which gener?ites the heat in proportion to the
weight that prefles the rubbing furfaces togC'^
ther, and the velocity with which they move,
See art. 31.

The caufe of their getting loofe is, their
heating, and burning the wood, or drying it^
fo that it Ihrinks in the bands, and gives the
gudgeon room to work.

To avoid the effefts, we muft remove the
caufes.

I . Increafe the furface of conta£l or rubbing
parts, and, if pofTible, decreafe their velocity ;
|:he heat wiU not then be generated fo much;

\Chap,IV' Of GuDGEONSi 6r

2. Conduft the heat away from the gudgeon Art. 84.
as faft as generated, ifpoflible.

To increafe the furface of contaft, without
; uicreafing its velocity, make the neck or bear-
ing part of the gudgeon longer. If the length
be doubled, the weight will be fuftained by a
I double furface, and velocity the fame; there
: will not then be fo much heat generated : and
I even fuppofmg the fame quantity of heat ge-
Iherated, there will be a double fp ace of fur^
face expofed to air, to convey it away.*

To convey the heat away as faft as gene-
irated, caufe a fmall quantity of water to drop
ilowly on the gudgeon, to carry off the heat
by evaporation, t A fmall quantity is better
than a large ; becaufe it fhould be juft fuffici-
ent to keep up the evaporation, and not de-
ftroy the polifh made by the greafe ; which it

* To underftand this fubjed better, let us confider, that
when we ftrike a flint with fteel, we choofe the fliarpeft part
of the flint ; then the furface of contaft is fo fmall, that the
force of the ftroke creates friftion enough to llrike or gene-
rate fire : But if we flrike a thick fmooth part of the flint,
the force will not be fufficient to flrike fire, the furface being
too large. Hence we may conclude, that the fmaller the
rubbing furface, the greater the heat ; and if the furface was
fo fmall as to flrike fire continually, it would be very difficult
to keep the gudgeon cool. If a gudgeon heats at 3 inches
bearing on the flone, lengthen it to 6 or 8 inches. I have
feen ihem in ufe from 2 1-2 to 10 inches bearing on theftone ;
and thofe who had the longefl (being men of the greateft ex-
perience in the milHng bufmefs) accounted their length to be
a good remedy againft the heating.

f Water is a great condudor of heat, and wonderful is
the efFed: of the principle of evaporation, in carrying off the
heat from bodies; every particle of water that evaporates,car-
ries off a quantity of heat with it. Dr. Franklin afferts, that
by evaporation a man could be froze to death the warraefl day
in fummer»

Or- Gudgeons. Chap, IV,

will do if the quantity be too great, and will
let the bare ftone and gudgeon come in con-
tad: ; which will caufe both to wear away very
faft.*

The beft form that I have feen for large
gudgeons for heavy wheels, is made of caft
iron. Fig. 6, plate XI, is a perlpedive vie^v;
of one ; a a a a, are four wings at right angled
with each other, extending from fide to fid^
of the fhaft. Thefe wings are larger, everji
way, at the end that is fartheft in the Ihaft
than at the outer end, for convenience in cafl-
ing them, and alfo that the bands may driv^
on tight, one over each end of the wing?^
Fig. 4 is an end view of the fhaft, with the
gudgeon in it, and a band on the end ; thefe
bands, being put on hot, become very tight;
as they cool, and if the Ihaft is dry will not
get loofe, but will if it is green ; but by driving
a few wedges along Ude of each wing, it can
be eafily faftened, by any ordinary hand,
without danger of moving it much from the
centre.

One great ufe of thefe wings is, to convey
away the heat from the gudgeon to the bands,
which are in conta<^ with the air; and by

* The greafe operates in leffening fri£lion, perhaps, in
three ways. ift. The particles of the greafe, by filling up
the pores of the ftone and gudgeon, makes the Aiding fuf -,
faces more perfectly fmooth. 2d. The particles of greafe
a£l: as rollers between the fUding furfaces. 3d. It deftroys
the co-hefion that might other wife take place between the
furfaces. See j4rt' ^i. and^^'

Oil is faid to anfwer beft for fpindle feet and ftep gudgeons,
tallow for common gudgeons, and black lead mixt with tal-
lovr for cogs, which forms a glolTy pohfh on them that \viH
wear a Ions: time.

Chap. IV. Of Gudgeons. 6%

thus diftributing the heat through £o much A"- *4-
metal, with fo large a furface expofed to the
air, the heat is carried oif as faft as generated ;
therefore can never accumulate to a degree
fufficient to burn loofe, as it will often do in
common gudgeons of wrought iron. Wood
will not condu^l the heat as well as the wings
of metal ; therefore it accumulates iji the fmall
fpace of the gudgeon, to fuch a degree as to
burn loofe.

Thefe gudgeons fhould be made of the befl
hard metal, well refined, in order that they
may wear well, and not be fubjed to break ;
but of this there is but little danger, if the
metal is good : ihould it prove to be the cafe,
I propofe to have wings caft feparate from the
neck, as reprefented by fig. 4 ; where the in-
fide light fquare fhews a mortice for the fteeled
gudgeon, fig. 7, to be fitted into, with an
iron key behind the wings, to draw the gudgeon
in tight, if ever it Ihould work loofe ; by which
means it may be taken out, at any time, to
repair.

This plan would do well for ftep gudgeons
for heavy upright Ihafts, fuch as tub mills,
&c.

When the neck is caft with the wings, the
fquare part in the Ihaft need not be larger
than the li^ht fquare reprefenting the mortice.

V:S>% «<5>i V5>1 <<:?i t<5>^ t-<2?^ s^S>j t^;?^ "-t;?^ «<i?^ V5?^ ^;;^

CHAPTER V.

Art. 85. ON BUILDING MrLL*DAMS, LAYING FOUN-»

DATIONS, AND BUILDING MILL-WALLS.

THERE are feveral things to he canfider*
ed, and dangers to be guarded againft,
in building mill-dams.

1 , Conftrud: them fo, that the water tum-
bling over them, cannot undermine their foun-
dations at the lower fide.*

2. So that heavy logs, large pieces of ice,
6cc. floating down, cannot catch againft any
part of them, but Aide eafily over.t

* If you have not a foundation of folid rocks, or fo heavy^
that the water tumbling over, will never move them, there
fliould be fuch a foundation made with great ftones, not lighter
than millftones (if the ftream is heavy, and the tumble great)
well laid, as low and clofe as poffible, with their upftreatn
end loweft, to prevent any thing from catching under them.
But if the bottom is fand or clay, make a foundation of the
trunks pf long trees, laid clofe together on the bottom of thrf
creek, with their but ends down ftream, as low and clofe as ;
poflible, acrofs the whole tumbling fpace. On thefe may be
built the dam, either of ftone or wood, leaving 12 or 15 feet:
below the breaft or fall, for the water to fall upon« See fig'
3, plate X, which is a front vi'ew of a log dam, fhewing the
polition of the logs, alfo of the ftones in the abutments.

f If the dam is built of timber and fmall ftones, &c. make I
the breaft ^jperpendicular of ftrait logs, laid clofe one upon
another, putting the largeft, longeft, and beft logs on the 1
top; make another wall of logs 12 or 15 feet upftream, lay-
ing tbeiij clofe together, to prevent lamprey eels from work-

Chap. V, On building Mill-dams. 65

3. So that the preliure or force of the cur- -^'""- ^j-
rent of the water will prefs theu' parts more
firmly together,*

in g through them, not To high as the other, by 1^ feet; tic
thefe walls together, at every 6 feet, with crois logs, with
the butsdown ftream, dovetailed and bolted ilrongly to the
logs of the lower wall, efpecially the upper log, which ihould
be ilrongly bolted down to ihem. The fpaces between thefe
log walls, are to be filled up with ftones, gravel, &c. Chufc
a dry feafon for this work ; then the water will run through
the lower part, while you build the upper part tight.

To prevent any thing from catching againfi: the top log,

flag the top of the dam with broad or long ilones, laying the

downilream end on the upltream lide of the lop-, to extend a

little above it, the other end lowed, fo that the next tier of

ftones will lap a little over the firfi ; ftlll getting lower as

you advance upftream. This will glance logs, &c- over the

dam, without catching againil any thing — If fui table fLones

cannot be had, I would recommend flrong plank, or fmall

Jogs, laid clofe together, with both ends pinned to tl:e top

logs of the wall, the upftream end being 3 feet lower than the

other : But if plank is to be ufed, there need only be a flrong

frame raifed on the foundation logs, to fupport the plank, or

the timber it is pinned to. See a Tide view of this frame, fig.

45. plate IV. Some plank the breafl to the front pods, and

' fill the hollow fpace with done an:! gravel ; but this may be

'■ omitted, if the foundation logs are fulliciently long upftream,

I under the dam, to prevent the whole from floating away.

i Stone firi% and then gravel, fand and clay, are to be filled in

j above this frame, fo as to Hop the water. If the abutments

I are vvcU fecured, the dam will fland well.

I * If the dam is built of (lone, make it in the form of an

I ijrch or femicircle, ftanding upilream and endeavour to fix

\ itrong abutments on each lide, to fupport the arch ; therj_,

} \ji laying the ftones, put tlie widefl end upilrcam, and the

I aiorc they are drove dovvnllream, the tighter they will prefs

I together. All tlje ilones of a dam ihould be laid with their

I upflream ends loweft, and the othp? end lapped over the prc-

; ceding, in manner of the ihingles oh tiles of a houfe, to glance

! every thing fmoothly over, as at the (ide 3, of fig. 3, plate-

I X. The bread may be built up with flone, either on a good

i tock or log foundation, putting the be ft in front, leaning a

On building Mill-dams. Chctp, V»

4. Give them a fafficient tumbling fpace to
vent ail the water in time of frefhes.'-'"

5. Make the abutments fo high, that the
water will not overflow them in tim^e of
freilies.

6. Let the dam and mill be a fufficient dif-
tance apart ; fo that the dam will not raife the
v/ater on the mill, in time of high floods, t

little upflream, and on the top lay one good log, and another
15 feet upftrearn on the bottom, to tie the top log to, by fe-
veral logs, with g©od buts, downftream, dovetailed and bolted
llrongly, both at bottom and top of the top and upftream logs ;
fill in between them with Hone and gravel, laying large ftones
flatting next the top log, to glance any thing over it. This
will be much better than to build all of ftone ; becaufe if one
at top give way, the breach will probably increafe rapidly,
and the whole go down to the bottom.

* If the tumbling fpace is not long enough, the v/ater will
be apt to overflow the abutments, and if they are earth or
loofe ftones, they v»'ill be broken down, and perhaps a very
great breach made. If the dam is of logs, the abutments had
beftbe made of ftone, laid us at the iide 3, in fig. 3 ; but if
ftone is not to be had, they muft be made of wood, although
fubjecl torot foon, being above v^'ater-

■\ I have, in many -inftances, feen the mill fet fo clofe to
the dam, that the pierhead or forebay was in the breaft; fo
thae in cafe of a leak or breach about the forebay or mill,
there is no chance of ihutting off the water, or conveying it
another way ; but all mull be left to its fate. The mill is
frequently broken down, and carried away ; even the mill-
ftones are carried a confidcrable diilance down the ftream^
and fometimes buried under the fand, and never found.

The great danger of this error will appear more plain, if
WG fuppofe fix mills on one ftream, one above the other, each
at the hreail of the dam ; and a great flood to break the firft
or upperTi:oft dam, lay through the pierhead,, carryilig with
it the n^ill, ftones and all ;' thisfo inereafes the flood, that it
overliows the next dam, which throws the water againft the
mil], and it is taken av/ay ; the water of thefe two dams has
now fo augmented the flood, that it carries every mill before
it, until it comes to the dam of the fixlh, v.-hich it fweeps
av/ay alio ; but fuppofe this dam to be a quarter of a miJc-

Cliap. V, On building Mill-walls.

On building Mill-iualls. Art. S6.

THE principal things to be conficlered in
building mi 11- wails, are,

1. To laj the foundations with good large
ftones, fo deep as to be out of danger of being
undenuined, in cafe of any accident of the wa-
ter breaking thro' at the mill.*

2. Set the centre of gravity, or Aveight of
the wall, on the centre of its foundation, t

above the mill, which is fet well into the bank, the extra wa-
ter that is thrown into the canal, runs over at the waile left
in its banks for the purpofe ; and the water having a free paf-
fage by the mill, does not injure it ; whereas, had it been at
th? breaft of the dam, itmufthave went away with the reft.
A cafe, fmiilar to this, aftually happened in Virginia in 1794 ;
all the mills and dams on Falling creek, in Chefterfield county,
were carried away at once, except the lowefr, (Mr. Ward-
rope's) ; whofe dam,having broke the year before, was rebuilt
a quarter of a mile higher up ; by \vhich means his mill was
faved.

* If the foundation is not good, but abounding with quick-
fands, the wall cannot be expefted to ftand, unlefs it be made
good by driving down piles until they meet the folid ground ;
on the top of which may be laid large flat pieces of timber,
for the walls to be built on ; they Vvill not rot under water,,
totally excluded from the air.

f It is a common pradice to build walls plumb outfide, and
batter them all from the inilde ; which throvi^s the centre of
their gravity to one fide of their bafe. See art. 14. There-
fore if it fettles any, it will incline to fall outwards. P'.Iill-
wallsfliould be battered as much outiide, as to be equal to the
offsets infide, to caufe the whole wcinht to (land on the centre
of the foundation, unlefs it ftand againft a bank, as the v/all
next the waggon, in plate VIII. The bank is very apt to
prefs the wall inwards, unlefs it fl;ands batterinp'. In this
cafe, build the fide againfb the bank plumb, even with the
ground, and then begin to batter it inwards. The plumb
rules fliould be made a little widefl: at the upper end, fo as to
give the wall the right inclination, nccording to its height ;
60 do which, take a line, the length equal to the height of

On building IVIill-walls. Chap, V,

3. Ufe good mortar, and it will, in time,
petrify and become as hard as ftone.*

4. Arch over all the windows, doors, &c,

5. Tie them v^^ell together by the timbers
of the floors.

the wall, fetone end, by a compafs point, in the lower end
of the plumb rule, and llrike the plomb line ; then move the
other end juft as much as the wall is to be battered in the
whole height; and it will ftew the inclination of the fide of
the rule that will batter the wall exsdiy right. 1 hi;- error
of building walls plumb outfide, is frequently committed in
building the abutments of bridges ; the ccnlequence is, tJi'ey
fall down in a fhort time ; becaufe the earth between the
walls is expanded a little by every hard frcft, and tumbles the
walls over.

* I have but little experience in this ; but will quote an
experienced author (George Sample, on Free Trade.) He
fays,

*' Concerning Lime, Mortar and Grout.

" I have, from my childhood, been well acquainted with
the nature of lime and fand made into mcrtar, of all forts that
have been ufed in buildings in thefe countries, and tried nu-
merous experiments with them. On which, together with
what I have obferved and learned from old experienced
workmen, during the courfe of upwards of fixty years, I
think I can fafely affirm, that good mortar, that is made of'
pure and well burnt hmeftone, properly made up with Iharp
clean fand, free from any fort of earth, loam or mud, will,;
\v'ithin fome confiderable time, actually petrify, and, as it
vycre, turn to the confiftency of a ftone. I remember I had'
one of my remarks from an old Scotch mafon ; which I fliall
give you in his own identical words : that is, :

** When a hundred years are pafl: and gane,

*' Then gude mortar is grown to p ftain (or flone.)

^' I need not explain what I mean by (harp cleaii fand ; but
I fhall give you this one caution, that i; is better to put too
much fand in your mcrtar, than too little. I know workmen,
choofe to have their mortar rich, becaufe it works pleafanter ;,
but rich m.ortar will not ftand the weather fo well, nor grow
fo hard, as poor mortar will do. If it was all lime, it would
have no more ftrength, in comparifon, than clay."

*•

ly^ ' ' ' ^

PART THE THIRD— Containing,
E V A N S's

:^ATENTED IMPROVEMENTS

ON THE ART OF
MANUFACTURING GRAIN

INTO

MEALandFLOUR.

—^■t'- ..mJii^JM^

aesv^

I N T R O D U c;T I^O N.

H E S E improvements confift of the invention,
and various applications, of tlie following machines,
viz.

1. The Elevator.

2. The Conveyer.

3. The Hopper-boy.
j 4. The Drill.

j 5. The Defcender.

Which five machines are varioufly applied, in dif-
ferent mills, according to their conilrudion, fo as to
Derform every necelTary movement of the grain and
meal, from one part of the mill to another, or from
3ne machine to another, through all the various ope-
rations, from the time the grain is emptied from the
ivaggoner's bag, or from the meafure on board the
(hip, until it is completely manufactured into fuper-
fine flour, and other different qualities, and completely
feparated, ready for packing into barrels, for fale or
exportation. All v/hich is performed by the force of
the water, Vv'ithout the aid of manual labour, except
to fet the different machines in motion, 3cc. Which
lelfens the labour and expence of attendance of flour
mlili, folly Qiie half. See the whole applied, plate
VIII.

t<5^ c<?-) •.ti>j '.^^ t^-> cc5-j • <^'> -^ -1 vi>^ '-<?*) '^-? ' i>) v^r-^ '-<?-i '- s^ ^-^, •-:<'-> t^To t.<-s!»^
«5>^ tt:?-) c<^ '.^>> ^<5'i ^i?^ t<:?^ '-^P^ <<;;^> t<:?"-> ;<;;t c^^

THE

r 0 U N G

l-wriglit's Guide*

<^=^.<®.y

PART THE THIRD.
<c^>-

CHAPTER I.
DESCRIPTION OF MACHINES.

'^•■<^> — .

I. Of the Elevator, ^''^^^'

THE Elevator is an endlefs ilrap, revolv- Defcrlption
iiig over tv/o pullics, one of which is fet f^^^^f ^^^'
where the grain or meal, occ. is to be hoided
from, and the other Vvhere it is to be hoifted
to ; to this ilrap is failened a number of fmall
buckets, vvhicli fill thenifeives as they pafs un-
der the lower pulley, and empty as they pafs
over the upper one. To prevent Vv^afte of
v/hat may fpill out o£thefe buckets, the ftrap,
buckets and puUies, are all enclofed, and work
in tight cafes ; fo that what fpills will defcefid
tQ the place from whence it Vv'^as hoiiled. A
B, in fig. I, plate VI, is an elevator for raifmg Pjate vi.
grain, which is let in at A, and difcharged at ^'^' ''
B into the fpouts leading to the different gar-
ners. Fig. 2 is a perfpe61ive view of the ftrap, F%: =.

Description of Machines. Chap, /.

and different kinds of buckets, and the various
modes of faftening them to the ftrap.

2. Of the Conveyer.

The Conveyer K I, fig. i, is an endlefs
fcrew of two continued fpires, put in motion
in a trough ; tlie gram is let in at one end, and
the fcrew drives it to the other, or collects it
to the centre, as at y, to run into the eleva-
tor, (fee plate VIll, 37 — ^36 — ^4, and 44
—45) or it is let in at the middle, and convey-
ed each way, as 15 — 16, plate VIII.

Fig. 3, is a top view of the lower pully of
a meal elevator in its cafe, and a meal convey-
er in its trough, for conveying meal from the
{tones, as faff as ground, into the elevator.
This is an 8 fided fliaft, fet on all fides with
fmall inclining boards, called flights, for con-
veying the meal from one end of the trough
to the other ; thefe flights are fet in a fpiral
line, as fhewn by the dotted line ; but being
fet acrofs faid line, changes the principle of
the machine from a fcrew to that of plows,
which is found to anfwer better for conveying
warm meal.

Befides thefe conveying flights, half their
number of others are fometimes necelFary ;
which are called lifters, and fet with their
broadfides foremoft, to. raife the meal from
One fide, and let it fall on the other fide of the
ftiaft to cool : thefe are only ufed where the
meal is hot, and the conveyer fhort. See 21
—22, in plate VIII ; which is a conveyer,
carrying the meal from 3 pair of ftpnes to the
elevator, 23 — 24.

Chap^ I, ''' Description of Machines. ,75

Art. 88.

3. Of the Hopper-hoy.

Fig. 12, plate VII, is a Hopper-boy ; which j,.^ ^
confifts of a perpendicular fhaft, AB, put in a qJ^^j^^
flow motion, (not above 4 revolutions in a mi- Kopper-boy
nute) carrying round with it the horizontal
piece CD, which is called the arms, and fet, on
theunderiide, full of fmall inclining boards, call-
ed flights, fo fet as to gather the meal tow^ard^
the centre, or fpread it from the centre to
that part of the arm which paifes over thebolting
hopper ; at which part, one board is fet broad-
fide foremoft, as E (called a fweeper) which
drives the meal before it, and drops it into
;the hoppers HH, as the arms pafs over them.
The meal is generally let fall from the eleva-
tor, at the extremity of the arm, at D, v/liere
there is a fweeper, which drives the meal be- sweepers
fore it, trailing it in a circle the whole way their ufe..
round, fo as to difcharge nearly the whole of
its load, by the time it returns to be loaded
again : the flights then gather it towards the
centre, from every part of the circle; which
would not be the cafe, if the Aveepers did not
lay it round ; but the meal would be gathered
from only one fide of the circle. Thefe fweep-
ers are fcrewed on the back of the arm, fo
that they may be raifed or lowered, in order
to make them difcharge fooner or later, as ne-
ceffary.

The extreme flight of each end of the arms
are put on v/ith a fcrew paifmg through its •
centre, fo that they may be turned to drive
the meal outwards ; the ufe of Vx/hich is, to
fpread the warm meal as it falls from the ele-

Description of Machines. Chap. I,

vator, in a ring round the hopper-boy, while
it at tlie fame time gathers the cool meal ioto
the bolting hopper ; fo that the cold meal may
be bolted, and the v/armmeal fpreaci to cool,
b3/ the fame machine, at the fame tim.e, if the
miller chnfes fo to do. The foremofl edge of
thefe arm-: is flcped up, in order to make them
rife over the meal, and its weight is nearly
balanced by the weight w, hung to one end of
^ cord palling over the pulley P, and to the
llav iron F. About 41-2 feet of the lov/er
end of the upright fhaft is made round, paifing
ioofely through a round hole in the flight arm,
giving it. liberty to rife and fail freely, to fuit
any quantity of meal tinder it. The fiigbt
arm is led round by the leading arm LM, by
a cord palung through the holes LM, at each
end, and made fail: to the fiio-ht arm DC. This
cord is lengthened or fnortened by a hitch-
flick ]|S[, Y/ith two holes for the cord to pafs
through, the end of the cord being paifed
tlirough a hole at D, and faftened to the end
cf the ftick ; this cord, mufi reeve freely thro*
the holel arc the ends of the arms, in order that
the ends may both be led equally. The flight
arm falls behind the leader about i~6th part of
the circle . The ft ay-iron CFE, is a ring at
F, which fits the fnaft Ioofely, and is for keep-
ing the arm fleady, and hanging the ends of
an equal height by the fcrews CE.

Fig. 1 3 is a perfpediive viev/ of the under
fide of the flight arms. The arm a-c, with
flights and fvyeepers compleat ; sss fliews the
fcrews v/hich faflien the fweepers to the arms.
The arm c-b^ is to Ihew the rule for laying

Chap. I. Description of Machines. ^^

out for the flights. When the fweeper at b, ^^^- Ss.
is turned in the pofition of the dotted line, it
drives the meal outwards. Fig. 14 is a plate
on the bottom of the fhaft, to keep the arm
from the floor, and 15 is the ftep gudgeon.

4. Of the ^rill.

The Drill is an endlefs ftrap revolving over Drill,
two puUies, like an elevator, but fet nearly-
horizontal, and inftead of buckets, there are
fmall rakes fixed to the firap, v/hich draw the
grain or meal along the bottom of the cafe.
See GH, in plate VI, iig, i . The grdn is
let in at H, and difcharged at G. This can
fometimes be applied with iefs expence than a
conveyer ; if it is fet a little defceiiding, it will
m.ove grain or meal with eafe, and will do well
even a little afcending.

5. Of the Befcendcr,

The Defcender is a broad endlefs ftrap of Defcender,
very thin pliant leather, canvaf^, or flannel,
&c. revolving over tv/o puUies, v/hich turn on
fmall pivots, in a cafe or trough, to prevent
walle, one end of which is to be low^er than
the other. See EF, fig. i. The grain or Fig. 1.
meal fails from the elevator t)n the upper flrap,
at E, and by its own gravity and fall, fets the
machine in motion, and it difcharges the load
over the lower pulley F. There are tv/o fmall
buckets to bring up v/hat may fpill or fail off
the ftrap, and lodge in the bottom of the
cafe.

This m.achine moves on the principles of an
overfnot water-v/heel, and will convey meal

Description of Machin:es. Chap, I,

a confiderable diftance, with a fmall defcent.
Where a motion is eafily obtained from the
water, it is to be preferred to that of working
itfelf, it being eafily flopped, is apt to be trou-
blefome.

The Grain Spout is hung on a fhaft to turn i
on pivots or a pin, fo that it may turn every
way, hke a crane ; into this fpout the grain \
falls from the elevator, and, by turning, it I
can be diredled into any garner. The ipout i
is made to fit clofe, and play under a broad 1
board, and the grain is let into it through the '\
middle of this board, near the pin, fo that it
will always enter the fpout. See it under B, ,
fig. I . L is a view of the under fide of it, and 'I
M is a top view of it. The pin or fhaft may ^
reach down fo low, that a man may fland on (
the floor and turn it by the handle x.

CHAPTER II. ;

— .<t^> —

APPLICATION OF THE MACHINES, IN THE

PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING WHEAT

INTO SUPERFINE FLOUR.

PLATE VIII, is not meant to fhew the
plan of a mill ; but merely the Applica-
tion and Ufe of the patented Machines.

■wheat.

Chap. II, Application of the Machines. y^

The grain is emptied from the waggon into -^rt. 89.
the fpout I , which is fet in the wall, and con-
veys it into the fcale 2, that is made to hold of reccW-
10, 20, 30, or 60 bufliels, at pleafure. ingthe

There fhould, for convenience of counting,
be weights of 6olbs. each ; divided into 30, 15
and 7 i-2lbs. then each weight would fliew
a bufhel of wheat, and the fmaller ones halves,
pecks, <Scc. which any one could count with
eafe.

When the wheat is weighed, draw the gate
at the bottom of the fcale, and let it run into
the garner 3 ; at the bottom of which there is
a gate to let it into the elevator 4 — 5, which
raifes it to 5, and the crane fpout being turn-
ed over the great ftore garner 6, which com-
municates from floor to floor, to garner 7,
over the ftones 8, which fuppofe to be for
{helling or rubbing the wheat, before it is
ground, to take off all dull that fl:icks to the
grain, to break fmut or fly-eaten grain, lumps
of dufl:, <Scc. As it is rubbed it runs, by the
dotted lines, into 3 again ; in its paflage it goes
through a current of wind blowing into the
I tight room 9, having only the fpout a, through
:the lower floor, for the wind to efcape ; all
jthe chaff will fettle in the room, but mofl: of
I the dufl: paffes out with the wind at a. The
|wheat again runs into the elevator at 4, and
the crane fpout, at 5, is turned over the fcreen
hoppers 10 o r 1 1, and the grain lodged there,
out of which it runs into the rolling fcreen 12,
and defcends through the current of wind
made by the fan 13, the clean heavy grain de-
fcends, by 14, into the conveyer 15 — 16;

8o Application of the Machines. Chap, II,

Art. 89. which conveys it into all the garners over the
ftones y — 17 — 18, and thefe regularly fupply
the (tones 8 — 19 — 20, keeping always an equal
quantity in the hoppers, which v/ill caufe them
to feed regularly ; as it is ground the meal fails
to the conveyer 21 — 22, which coliecSbs it to
the meal elevator, at 23, and it is raifed to
24, w^hence it gently runs down the fpout to
the hopper-boy at 25, which fpreads and cools
it iulnciently, and gathers it into the bolting
hoppers, both of which it attends regularly ;
as it paiTes through the fuperfine cloths 26, the ;
fuperiine flour fails into, the packing cheft 28,' ,
which is on the fecond fiOor : If the flour is to
be loaded on waggons, it fnould be packed on !
this floor, that it may conveniently be rolled I
into them ; but if the flour is to be put on I
board a velTel, it will be more convenient to ij
pack on the lower floor, out of chefl 29, and !
roil it into the vefTel at 30. The fliorts and 1
bran fnould be kept on the fecond floor, that ;
they may be conveyed by fpouts into the vef-
feFs hold, to fave labour. j

The rublings which fall from the tail of the i
lit reel 26, are guided into the head of the |
2d reel 27 ; which is in the fame cheft, near
the floor, to fave both room and machinery*
On the head of this reel is 6 or 7 feet of fine
cloth, for tail flour, and next to it the mid
dling ftuff, &c.

The tail flour 'which falls from the tail of-

the I ft reel 26., and head of the 2d reel 27, and

isrequires to be bolted over again, is guided by!

a fpout, as fhewn by dotted lines 31 — 22,

into the conveyer 2 2-*-2 3, to be hoiftcd agaiflj

Chap. IL Application of Machines. 8i

with the ground nleal ; a little bran may be ^^^- ^9-
let in with it, to keep the cloth open in warm J^^^. ^f.^J"
weather — But if there be not a fall fufRcient hoirtedancT
for the tail flour to run into the lower convey- bolted over,
er, there may be one fet to convey it into the
: elevator, as 31 — 32;. There is a little regu-
[ lating board, turning on the joint x under the
I tail of the firft reels, to guide more or lefs with
the tail flour.

The middlings, as they fall, are conveyed Middling*:
I into the eye of either pair of millllones by the |J-th"hr^^
I conveyer 31 — 32, and ground over with the wheat.
\ wheat ; which is the bed way of grindinp'
, them, becaufe the grain keeps them from be-
ling killed, and there is no time lofl: in doing
lit, and they are regularly mixed with the which faves
flour. There is a flanting Aiding board, to labour and
guide the middlings over the conveyer ^ that ""^'
the miller may take only fucli part, for grind-
ing over, as he fliall judge fit ; and a little re-
gulating board between the tail flour and mid-
dlings, to guide more or lefs into the fl:ones or
elevator.

The light grains of wheat, fcreenings. Sec.
after being blown by the fan 13, fall into the
fcreenings garner 32 ; the chaff is driven fur-
ther on, and fettles in the chaff-room 33 ; the
greater part of the dufl: will be carried out
with the wind through the wall. For the
theory of fanning v/hear, fee art. 83.

To clean the Screenings.

Draw the little gate 34, and let them into Screenings
the elevator at 4, and be elevated into garner '-^"^'^."-

Sz Application of Machines* Chap, IL

Art. 89, jQ . xhexi draw gate 10, and fhut ii and 314,
and let them pafs through the rolUng-fcreen
12 and fan 13, and as they fall at 14, guide
them down a fpout (fhewn by dotted lines)
into the elevator at 4, and elevate them into
the fcreen-hopper 1 1 ; then draw gate 1 1 , fmit
10, and let them take the fame cburfe over;
again, and return into garner 10, &c. as often
as neceffary, and, when cleaned^ guide them
into the ftones to be ground.

The fcreenings of the fcreenings are now
in garner 32, which may be cleaned as before,
and an inferior quality of meal made out of
them.

By thefe means the wheat may be fo effectu-
ally feparated from the feed of weeds, &c. as
to leave none to be wafted, and all the chaffy
cheat, &c. faved for food for cattle.

This completes the whole procefs from th^
waggon to the waggon again, without manuel
labour, except in packing the flour, and roll^
ing it in. [.,

Art. 96. Of elevating Grain from Ships i

dfeievating 1 Y the Vv^icat coiucs to the mill by IhipS^

illnVir^ No. 35, and requires to be meafured at tlie

meafared at mill, then a coHveyer,' 35 — 4, may be fet in

the mill. motion by the great cog-wheel, and may be

under or above the low^er floor, as may beft

fuit the height of the floor above high water.

This conveyer miift have a joint, as 36, in the

middle, to give the- end that lays on the lide

of the iliip, liberty to raife and lower with

Cbap, 11. Application OF Machines. &3

the tide. The wheat, as mealured, is poured ^"- 90.
into the hopper at 35, and is conveyed into
the elevator at 4 ; which conveyer will fo rub
the grain as to anfwer the end of rubbing ftones.
And, in order to blow away the duit, when
'rubbed off, before it enters the elevator, part
of the wind made by the fan 1 3 may be brought
down by a fpout, 13 — 36, and, when it en-
ters the cafe of the conveyer, will pafs each
way, and blow out the dull at 37 and 4.

In fome inftances, a fhort elevator, with
the centre of tiie upper pulley, 38, fixed im-
movable, the other end Handing on the deck,
fo n]uch aflant as to give the veffel liberty to
raife and lower, the elevator Hiding a little on
the deck. The caie of the lower ftrap of this
elevator muil: be confiderably crooked, to pre-
vent the points of the buckets from wearing
by rubbing in the defcent. The wheat, as
meafured, is poured into a hopper, which lets
it in at the bottom of the pulley.

But if the graia is not to be meafured at the V^^^ g^in
mill, then fix the elevator 35 — -39, to take it meaiijred at
out of the hole, and elevate it into any door }^^^ ""ii, it
convenient. The upper pulley is fixed in a out^of the
gate that plays up and down in circular rab- veflei's hole
bits, to raife and lower to fuit the tide and b"^"n^^^fe\^!^^
depth of the hole to the wheat. 40 is a draft tor that
of the gate, and manner of hanging the eleva- [^^^^^ ^^'4 ,

^ lowers vyith

tor in it. See a particular delcription in the the tide.
latter part of art. 95.

This gate is hung by a ftrong rope pafling By the
over a (froncr pulley or roller 41, and thence ^^^"S^^^ of

, one iiictn.

round the axis of the v/heel 42 ; round the rim
of whicli wheel there is a rope, which pafTes

5/}. Application of Machines. Chap. 11.

'\rt. 90. round the axis of wheel 43, round the rim of
which wheel is a fmallrope, leading down over
the pulley P, to the deck, and fallened to the j
cleet q ; a man by pulling this rope can hoift
the whole elevator ; becaufe if the diameter .j
of the axis be i foot and the wheels 4 feet,«
the power is increafed 16 fold, by art. 20. |,)
The elevator is hoifted up, and reiled againft f
the v/all, until the fhip comes too, and is fafcen- ,
ed fteady in the right place, then it is fet in
Lifting the the hole on the top of the wheat, and the |
^elP^^^^^' bottom being open, the buckets fill as they''
pafs under the pulley ; a man holds by the
cord, and lets the elevator fettle as the wheat ;
finks in the hole, until the lower part of the |v;;
cafe reils on the bottom of the hole, it being
fo long as to keep the buckets from touching
the veiiel; by this time it v/ill have hoifted i, ;
2 or •^00 bufhels, accordincr to the fize of the '
fhip and depth of the hole, at the rate of 300
bufnels per hour. Yv hen the grain ceafes run-
ning in of itfelf, the man may fi^oyel it up, till
the load is difcharged.

The elevator difcharges the wheat into the
conveyer at 44, which conveys it into the
fcreen-lioppers 10 — 1 1, or into any other gar-
garner^ and ner, from Vv^hich it may defcend into the ele-
dmJrubroly vator 4 — 5, or into the rubbing-ilones 8.
the du(L This conveyer may ferve inftead of rubbing-

ftones, and the duft rubbed off thereby may
be, by a v^und-fpout from the fan 13, into the
conveyer at 45, blown out through the wall
at p. The holes at 44 and 10 — 1 1 are to be
fmall, to let but little wind efcape any where
but out through the wa^], where it vvill carry
the duft.

VJ)ap. IL Application of Machines. ^5

I A fmall quantity of wind might be let into Art. 90,

the conveyei' 15 — 16, to blow away the duil

I'ubbed off by it.

I The fan niuft be made to blow very ilrong,

|;p be fufiicient for all thefe purpoies, and the

[Irength of the blail regulated as directed by

^rt. 83.
I

— •■«m>-<^^> —
A Mill for grinding Parcels. Arr. 91.

I HERE each perfon's parcel is to be ftored Application
[h a feparate garner, and kept feparate thro' ^Hnciiiio- ^^
|;he whole procefs of manufacture, which oc- merchant
tafions much labour; almoft all. of which is wm-Kinpar-

[ ^ ■ eels ; the

ieriormed by the machines. See plate VI. grain eleva-
ip;. T ; which is a view of one fide of a mill ^^^ fromthe

• • 1 r 111- wao;o;oninto

Lpntammg a number 01 garners nolaing par- anv trainer,
Dels, and a fide view of the wheat elevator. andirom^

ry, . . ^' 1 • ^ ^1 c them ap;ain,

i ne gram is emptied into the garner g,rrom into the roli-
:he waggon, as ihewn in plate VIII ; and, by ing-fcrecn,
iirawing the gate A, it is let into the elevator ':^^' y J-^^^^'

00' ^ _ ing gates ;

AB,and elevated into the crane-fpout B, which and kept fe-
ncing turned into the mouth of the garner-fpout P^^^^^^-
BC, which leads over the top of ,a number of
garners, and has, in its bottom, a little gate
over each o;anier ; which crates and o-arners
are ail numbered with the fame numbers re-
fpecPcively.

Suppofe we v/ifli to dcpofit the grain in the
garner No. 2, draw the gate 2 out of the bot-
tom, and fhut it in the l]:>out, to (lop the wheat
from paffing along the fpout pall the hole, fo
that it muft all fail into the c-arner ; and thus
tor the other garners 3-4-5-6-&C. Thefe

S6 Application of MACHiNES. Chap. Ii\

Art. 91. garners are all made like hopf)ers, abou
4 inches wide at the floor, and nearly thj
length of the garner; but as it pafles througjjj
the next ftory, it is brought to the form of
fpout 4 inches fquare, leading down to thP
general fpout KA, which leads to the eleva
tor ; in each of thefe fpouts is a gate number;
ed with the number of its garner ; fo thai
when we want to grind the parcel in garner 2
we draw the gate 2 in the lower fpout, to le
the wheat run into the elevator at A, to bi
elevated into the crane-fpout B, which is to bi
turned over the roiling-fcreen, as fnevvn i]
plate VIII.

Under the upper tier of garners, there is an
other tier in the next flory, let fo that thi
fpouts from the bottom of the upper tier paf
down the partitions of the lower tier, and tb
upper fpouts of the lower tier pafs between xh\
partitions of the upper tier, to the garner!
fpout.

Thefe garners, and the gates leading boti
into and out of them, are numbered as th^
Qthers.

If it is not convenient to fix the defcending
fpouts BC, to convey the wheat from the elej
vator to the garners, and KA to convey it fi'oiT
the garners to the elevator again, then thd
conveyers r-s and I-K may be ufed for faic;
purpofes. I

Meal kept To keep the parcels feparate, there fhpulcP
feparate. ^3^ g. craue-fpout to the meal elevator, or an)^|
other method, by which the meal of theie-i
cond parcel may be guided to fall on anotheij
part of the floor, until the fir ft parcel is all
bolted, and the chefts cleared out, v/hen thcj

Chap, //. Application of Machines.

meal of the fecond parcel may be guided into
the hopper-boy.

I mull here obferve, that in mills for grind-
ing parcels, the tail flour muft be hoifted by
a feparate elevator to the hopper-boy, to be
bolted over, and not run into the conveyer, as
[hewn ia plate VIII ; becaufe then the parcels
could not be kept feparate.

The advantages of the machinery, applied Advantages
to a mill for grinding parcels, are very great. ^^^"^ •

1. Becaufe without them there is much la-
bour in moving the different parcels from place
to place, all which is done by the machinery.

2. The meal, as it is ground, is cooled by
the machinery, ii\ fo ihort a time, and bolted,
that when the grinding is done, the bolting is
alfo nearly finilhed: Therefore,

3. It faves room, becaufe the meal need not
be fpread over the floor to cool, there to lay
12 hours as ufual, and none but one parcel need
be on the floor at once.

4. It gives greater difpatch, as the mill need
never ft:op either fliones or bolts, in order to
keep parcels feparate. The fcreenings of each
parcel may be cleaned, as directed in art. 89,
with very little trouble ; and the flour may be
aearly packed before the grinding is finiflied.
So that if a parcel of 60 bufliels arrive at the
mill in the evening, the owner may v/ait till
morning, when he may have it all finifhed ;
le may ufe the ofFall for feed for his team, and
Proceed with his load to market.

88 Application OF Machines. Chap, II, \

Art. 92. /i Grifl-niill for grinding very Jmall Parcels,

Application FIG. 1 6, plate VII, is a reprefeiitation of
to a grift- a grift-mill, fo conftruded that the grift being
put into the hopper, it will be ground and
bolted, and return into the bags again.

The grain is emptied into the hopper at A^'
and as it is ground it runs into the elevator,
at B, and is elevated and let run into the bolt-i'
ing hopper down a broad fpout at C, and, as'
bolted, it falls into the bags at d. The cheftj
is made to come to a point like a funnel, an^'
a divifion made to feparate the fine and coarfej
if wanted, and a bag put under each part ; or!
the top of this divifion is fet a regulating board
on a joint, as x, by which the fine and coarfe,
can be regulated at pleafure. \

If the bran requires to be ground over (a:'
it often does) it is made to fall into a box oveij
the hopper, and by drawing the little gate b,!
it may be let into the hopper, as foon as th^i
grain is all ground, and as it is bolted the fe!
cond time, it is let run into the bag by {hutting,
the gate b, and drawing the gate c. j

If the grain is put into the hopper F, therl
as it is ground it falls into the drill, whicl)
draws it into the elevator at B, and it afcend!
as before. '

v/ay to To keep the different grifts feparate — Wher

keep the ^^^^ miller i'ees the firft grift fall into the elevaj-

grUts lepa- in t? i i •

rate. tor, he (huts the gate h or d, and gives tnn<

for it to get all into the bolting reel ; he thei
ftops the knocking of the llioe by pulling th<
fhoe line, which hangs over the pullies pp, fron
the fiioe to near his hand, making it fall to :

Chap. //. AprLicATioN of Machines. 89

peg ; he then draws the gate B or d, and lets "^*- 9--
the fecond grift into the elevator, to fall into
the Ihoe or bolting hopper, giving time for
the hrft grift to be all into the bags, and the
bags of the fecond grift put in their places ;
lie then unhitches the line from the peg, -nd
lets the flioe knock again, and begin to bolt
the fecond p-rift.

If he does not choofe to let the meal run
immediately into the bags, he may have a box
made with feet to ftand in the place of the
bags, for t'le meal to fail in, out of which it
may be taken, and put into the bags, by the
miller or the owner, as fait as it is bolted,
and mixed as defired ; and as foon as the lirft
parcel is bolted, the little gates at the mouth
of the bags may be ftiut, while the m.eal is fill-
ed out of the box, and the fecond grift may be
boltino;.

The advantao-es of this improvement on a Advantages.
grift-mill are,

1 . It faves the labour of lioifting, fpreaciing,
and coolino- the meal, and carrying up the
bran to be ground over, fwccping the cheft,
and fillino; the bap-s.

2. It does all with greater difpatch, and
lefs wafte, without having to ftop the ftones or
bolting-reel, to keep the grifts feparate, and
the boltinp- is finiflied almoft as foon as the
grinding ; therefore the owner will be the lefs
time detained.

The cheft and fpouts fliculd be made fteep ^j^"™*'^^''''
to prevent the meal from lodging in them, fo
tUat the miller, by ftriking the bottom of the
cheft, will fhake out all the meal.
N

JO Application of Machines. C/i/7p» II, \ i

It. 93. The elevator and drill Ihould be fo made

as to clean out at one revolution. The drill
might have a brufli or tv/o, inftead of rakes,
which would fweep the cafe clean at a revo- |
lution ; and the Ihoe of the bolting-hopper
fiiould be ihort and fceep, fo that it Vviil clean
put; foon. I

1 he fam^ machinery may be ufed for mer- !
chant- work, by having a cranefpout at C, or a ',
fmali gate, to turn the meal into the hopper- ;
boy that tends the merchant bolt. i

A mill thus conflrusfted, might grind grids i
in the day-time, and merchant-v/ork at night, i

A drill is preferable to a conveyer for grill- I
mills, becaufe they will clean out much fooner |
and better. The lower pulley of the elevator
is tvv'ice as large in diameter as the puliies of!
the drill ; the lower pulley of the elevator, j
and one pulley of the drill, are on the fame I
ihaft, clofe together, the elevator moves the 1
drill, and the pulley of the drill being fmall-'
eft, gives room for the meal to fall into thebuck^' j
fits of the elevator. 1

Of elevating Gram, Salt, or atiy granulosis Siih-^
fiance, from Ships into Store-koufes, by the
Strength of a Horfe,

FIG. 17 reprefents the elevator, and the
manner of giving it motion ; the horfe is hitch-
ed to the end of the fweep-beam A, by which
he turns the upright ihaft, on the top of
which is the driving cog-wheel^ of 96 cogs,

Chap. It, Application of Machines. 91

2 1-2 inches pitch, to gear into the leading Art. 9-.
wheel of 20 cogs, on the fame iliaft with which
is another driving v/heel of 40 cogs, to gear
into another leading v/heel of 19 cogs, which
is on the fame fhaft with the elevator pulley ;
then if the horfe makes about 3 revolutions in *

a minute (which he will do if he walk in a
circle of 20 feet diameter) the elevator pulley-
will make about 30 revolution:, in a minute ;
and if the pulley is 2 feet in diameter, and a
bucket be put on every foot of the ilrap, to
hold a quart each, the elevator will hold: a-
bout 187 quarts per minute, or 320 buflieis in Qj-antit) a
an hour, 3840 buflieis in 12 hours; and for lioift'/^"
every foot the elevator is high, the horfe will
have to fuflain the v/eight of a quart of v/heat ;
fay 48 feet, which is the iieight of the higheft
ftore-houfes, then the horfe Vv^ould have to
move I 1-2 buflieis of wheat upwards, with
a velocity equal to iiis own vv^alk ; which I
prefume he can do with eafe, and overcome
the fri6tion of the machinery : By which v/ill
appear the great advantages of this applica-
tion.

The lower end of the elevator fiiould fland
near the fide of the fiiip, and the grain, fait,
&c. &c. be emptied into a hopper ; the upper
end may pafs through a door or v/indow, as
may be moft convenient ; the lower cafe lliould
be a little crooked to prevent the buckets from
rubbing: in their defcent.

92 Application of P/Iachines. Chap. II,

Art. 94. Of an Elevator applied to elevate Grain, (^r.

zur ought by a Man,

FIG. 18, AB, are two Ratchet Wheels, !
Elevator to be .^^ith two dscp ffrooves ill each of them, for '
man. ropes to run in ; they are tixed cicfe together, I

on the fame iliaft with the upper pulley of the ;
elevator, fo that they will turn eahiy on the !
iiiaft: tiie backward way, but a click falls in- .
to the ratchet, and prevents them from turn- !
ing forwards. Jig. 19 is a fide view of the \
v/lieel, ratchec and click. C D are two levers, '
like v/e avers treadles, and from lever C there !
is a light ilaiF paiies to the forefide of the groove '
Vvdieei B, and made fail hj a rope half way
round the vvdiecl ; and from faid lever C there
is a rope pailing to the backfide of the wheel
A ; and from lever D there is a light flafF paf- ;
ling to the forefide of the groove wheel A, •
and a rope to the backfide of the groove \
wheel B. ;

The man, vvho is to work this machine, i
wefghuotma ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ trcadics, aud holds by the ftaii's,'
the iiiachkie. with liio hands ; and as he treads on D it de- i
fcends, and tlie ftafi pulls forward the.w^heel |
A, and the rope pulls backv/ards the wheel B, |
and as he treads on C the ilafr pulls forward i
the wheel B, and the rope pulls backward the j
wheel A ; but as the click falls into the ratch- !
et, fo that the wheels cannot miOve forward j
without turning the elevator pulley, thus it is j
moved one way by the treadles ; and in or-j
der to keep up a regular motion, F is a heavy I
fly-wheel, which Ihould be cf caft metal, toi
prevent much obitruclioa from the air. I

Chap, 11. Application of Machines. 95

To calculate what quantity a man can raife Art. 94.
I to any height, let us fuppofe his weight to be
j i5olbs. which is the power to be applied, carho'ift,at
! and fijppofe he is able to walk about 70 feet jooSftiek
; up rtairs in a minute, by the ftrength of both per hour.
! his legs and arms, or, which is the fame thing,
i to move his weight on the treadles 70 fteps
I in a minute ; then fuppofe we allow, as by
I art. 29 — 42, to lofe 1-3 of thepower togainve-
I locity and overcome fri^lion (which will be a
' great plenty in this cafe, becaufe in the ex-
I perinient in the table in art. 37, when 7lbs
i vv^erc charged v/ith 61bs. they moved with a
I velocity of 2 feet in half a fecond) then there
I will remain loolbs. raifed 70 feet in a minute,
equal to 2oolb3. raifed 35 feet to the top of the
I third flory per minute, equal to 200 bufhels
[ per hour, 2400 buihels in 12 hours.

The great advantages of this application of The advanta-

^11 1 r 1 • ^ '' .- 1 . ties of this ap-

the elevator, and or this mode oi applymg pikation of
man's (Irength, will appear from thefe confi- ™^
derations, viz. he ufes the ftrength of both
his legs and arms, to move his weight only,
from one treadle to the other, which weio-ht
does the v/ork ; whereas in carrying bags on
his back, he ufes the ilrength of his legs only,
to raife both the weight of his body and the
burden, add to this that he generally takes a
very circuitous rout to the place where he is
to empty the bag, and returns empty : where-
as the elevator takes the fnortell: diret5lion to
the place of emptying, and is always ileadily
at work.

The man mmfc fit on a high bench, as a
v/eaver does . on which he can reft Dart of his

man s

treniith.

94 Application of Machines. Chap, tti

Art. 74. weight, and reir himfelf occaiionarty, ^vheii'
the machine moves lightly, and have a beam:
above his head, that he may piifh his head a-i
gainft, to overcome extraordinary refiftances. !
This is probably the beft means of applying;
man's ftrength to produce rotary motions.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX.

THE grain is emptied into the fpout A, byj
which it defcends into the garner B ; whence!
by drawing the gate at C, it paffes into thej
elevator CD, w^hich raifes it to D, and emp-!
ties it into the Crane-fpout E, which is fo iix-j
ed on gudgeons that it may be turned to anyj
furrounding granaries, into the Screen-hep-!
per F, for inftance, (which has two parts F
and G) out of v/hich it is let into the Rolling
Screen, at H, by drawing the fmall gate a.
It paffes through the Fan 1, and falls into the
little Sliding-Hopper K, Vv^iich may be mov-
ed, fo as to guide it into either of the Hang-
ing-Garners, over the ftones, L or M, and it;
is let into the Stone-Hoppers by the little bags
bb, as faft as it can be ground. When groundj
it falls into the Conveyor N N, Vi^hich carries;
it into the Elevator at O O, this raifes andi
empties it into the Hopper-Boy at P, which!
is fo con{lru6i:ed as to carry it round in a ring,
gathering it gradually towards the centre, till
it fweeps it into the Boulting-Hoppers Q^Q; '

The tail flour, as it falls, is guided into the!
Elevator, to afcend with the meal, and, that;
a proper quantity may be elevated, there is a{
regulating board R, fet under the ibperfine;
cloths, on a joint x, fo that it v/ill turn to-i

Chap. II, Application of Machines. 95

wards the head or tail of the Reel, and fend Art.94'
more or lefs into the hievator, as may be re-
qiured.

There may be a piece of coarfe cloth or
wire put on the tails of the fiiperfine reels,
that will let all pafs through except the bian,
which falls out at the tail, and a part of which
is guided into the elevator with the tail flour,
to afliit the boulting; in warm weather ; the
quantity is regulated hy a I'mall board r, let
fet on a joint under the ends of the reels. Beans
may be ufed to keep the cloths open, and ftill
be returned into tiie elevator to afcend again.
What palfes through the courfe cloth, or wire,
and the remainder of the bran, are guided in-
to the reel S, to be bouked.

To chan Wheat fever al Times,

Suppofe the grain to be in the fcreen-hopper

[E. Draw the gate a ; Ihut the gate e ; move

'the Hiding hopper K over the fbout K c d ; and

I let it run into the elevator to be raifed again.

I Turn the crane i|30ut over the empty hopper

jG, and the wheat .v/Hl be all depofited there

jnearly as foon as it is out of the hopper F.

jThen draw the gate e, fnut the gate a, and

jturn the crane ipout over F ; and fo on alter-

inately, as often as neceffary. When the grain

lis fuiliciently cleaned, flide the hopper K over

the hole that lead into the Hones.

I The fcreenings fail into a garner, hopper-

Kvife, to clean them draw the gate f, and let

•them run into the elevator, to be elevated

|into the fcreen hopper F. Then proceed with

Ithem as with the wheat, till fufficiently clean.

9^ Application of Machines. Chap. IT,

Art. 94- To clean the fannings, draw the little gate h,
and let them into the elevator, &c. as before.

Fig. II. is a perfpedlive view of the Con-
veyer, as it lies in its trough, at work ; and
iliews the manner in which it is joined to the
pulleys, at each fide of the elevator.

Fig. III. exhibits a viev/ of the pulley of
the meal elevator, as it is fupported on each
fide, with the llrap and buckets defcending to
be filled.

Fig. IV. is a perfpe^live view of the under'
• lide of the arms of the hopper-boy, with flights
complete. The dotted lines fliow the track'
of the flights of one arm ; thofe of the otheri
following, and tracking between them. A A'
are the fweepers. Thefe carry the meal round
in a ring, trailing it regularly all the way, the
flights drawing it to the centre, as already
mentioned. B B are the fweepers that drive:
it into the boulting hoppers. ■

Fig. V. is a perfpecitive view of the bucket
of the wheat-elevator ; and ihows the manner
in which it is faflened, by a broad piece ofj
leather, which palTes through andunder the ele-'
vator-flrap, and is nailed to- the fides with httle;
tacics .

'■ ' ■-■■ '■- ■ - » .1 • .?■■■•■'-;. • ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ Ki

G H A P T E Pv III.

©F THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SEVERAL
MACHINES.

Of the Wheat'Eld'Vator* Art. oc,

FIRST determine how many bufhels it co^ft^uftion
ftiould hoift in an hour, and where itlhall oFthe wheat-
be fet, fo as to anfv/er all the following pur-
pofes if poffible.

I . To elevate the grain from a waggon or
fhip.

I 2. From the different garners into which it

I may be ilored.

; 3. If it be a two ftory mill, to hoill: the

i Wheat from the tail of the fan, as it is cleaned,

I to a garner over the (tones.

i 4. To hoift the fcreenings to clean them fe-

I veral times.

I 5. To hoift the wheat from a Ihelling-mill,

I if there be one.

j One elevator may do all this in a mill right-

I iy planned, and moft of it can be done in mills

j ready built.

I Then if you willi it to hoift about 300 buih-

I els in an hour, make the ftrap 41-2 inches g^rap.

I O

•weed.

loo Construction of Machines. Chap. Ill, '

Art. 95. wide, of good, ftrong, white harnefs-leather,
only one thicknefs. It muft be cut and joined
together in a (Iraight line, with the thickefl
and confequently the thinnefl ends together,
fo that if they be too thin they may be lapped.
over and doubled, until they are thick enough j
To make fiugly .— Then, to make wooden buckets, takej
^vheatof the but of a willow or water-birch, that will'
fplit freely, cut it in bolts 15 inches long, and
rive andlhave it into ftaves 51-2 inches wide,;
and three eigths of an inch thick ; thefe will:
make one bucket each. Set a pair of compaf-j
fes to the wifi' h of the flrap, and make the
fides and middle of the bucket equal thereto ati
the mouth, but let the fides be only two thirds
of that width at the bottom, which will make;
it of the form of fig. 9, plate 6 ; the ends be-i
ing cut a little circular to make the buckets lay
clofer to the flrap and wheel. As it paiTe;
over, make a pattern of the form of fig. 9.
to defcribe all the refc by. This makes a buc-:
ket of a neat form, to hold about 75 folid inch
es, or fomewhat more than a quart. Then t(
make them bend to a fquare at the corners e c
cut a mitre fquare acrofs where they are td
bend, about 2-3 through ; boil them and bene'
. fhem hot, tacking a flrip of leather acrof
them, to hold them in that form until they gei
cold, and then put bottoms to them of the thi.'
fkirts of the harnefs-leather. Thefe bottom
are to extend from the lower end to the flral
that binds it on. Then, to faften them on vfej
and with difpatch, prepare a number of flrapi
I 3-4 inches wide, of the beft cuttings of th
harnefs-leather, vv^et them and flretch them i
hard as poiFible, which reduces their width t

Fig, 9.

Chap, III. Construction of Machines. ioi

about I 1-2 inches. Nail one of tliefe llraps Art. 95-
to the fide of a bucket, with 5 or 6 (trong tacks
that will reach through the bucket and clinch
infide. Then take a i t-2 inchchifel, andftrike
it through the main ftrap about a quarter of an
inch from each edge, and put one end of the
binding-flrap through the flits, draw the buc-
ket very ciofely to the ftrap, and nail it on the
other fide of the bucket, \vhich will finifli it.
See B in fig. 2, plate 6. C is a meal-bucket Fig. 2.
faftened in the fame manner, but is bottom- Meai-buckcts
ed only with leather at the lower end, the °^^''°°^'
main ftrap making the bottom fide of it. This
is the bed: way I have yet difcovered to make
wooden buckets. The fcraps of the harnefs-
leather, out of which the elevator-flraps are
cut, are generally about enough to complete
the buckets, w^hich works it ail up.

To make Sheet-Iron Buckets.

Fig. f .
Sheet-iron

CUT the fheet in the form of fig. 8, plate
VI. making the middle part c, and the fides
a and b nearly equal to the width of the flrap, buckets
and nearly 51-2 inches long, as before. Bend
them to a right angle at every dotted line, and
the bucket will be formed, c will be the bot-
tom fide next to the firap ; and the little holes
a a and b b will meet, and muft be rivetted
to hold it togrether. The two holes c are for
faflening it to the (traps by rivets. The part
ab is the part that dips up the wheat, and the
point being doubled back ilrengthcns it, and
tends to make it wear well. 1 he bucket be-
ing completely formed, and the rivet-holes
made, fpread one out again as fig. 8, to de-

102 Construction of Machines. Chap, III.

An. 95. fcribe all the reft by, and to mark for the holes,
"which will meet again when folded up- They
are faftened to the ftrap by two rivets with
thin heads put infide the bucket, and a double
bur of fheet-iron put on the under fide of the
ftrap, which f aft ens them on very tightly.
See A fig. 2. Thefe buckets will hold about
1,3 quarts, or 88 cubic inches. This is the
Meal Buckets bcft way I have found to make ftieet-iron buc-
ofiheetiron, j^g^s. D is amcal-bucket of Iheet-iron, ri-
vetted on by two rivets, with their heads in-'
fide the ftrap ; the fides of the buckets are
Ipurned a little out, and holes made in them
for the rivets to pafs through. Fig. 11 is the
form of one fpread out, and the dotted lines
fhow where they are bent to right angles to
form them. The ftrap forms the bottom fide
of thefe buckets.
Size and mo- JMakc the pulleys 24 inches diameter, as
liys," ^" thick as the ftrap is wide, and half an inch 1
higher in the middle than at the fides, to make
the ftrap keep on ; give them a motion of 25
revolutions in a minute, and put on a fheet- i
iron bucket for every 15 inches ; then 125
buckets will pafs per minute, which will carry
^fli^anhou°r^ i62quarts, and hoift 300 buihels in an hour,
and 3600 bufliels in 12 hours. If you wifti , it!l
to hoift fafter make the ftrap wider, the buc-
kets larger in proportion, and increafe the ve-
locity of the pulley, but not above 35 revolu-
tions in a minute, nor more buckets than one
for every 12 inches, otherwife they will not|
empty well. A ftrap of 5 inches, with buck- 1
ets 6 inches long, and of a width and propor- j
tion fuiting the ftrap (4 1-2 inches wide) will'
|w)ld i,B quarts each j and 35 revolutions of the

Cbaf, III. Construction OF Machines. io

pulley will pafs 175 buckets, which will carry Art. 95-
315 quarts in a minute, and 590 bufhels in an
hour. If the ftrap be 4 inches wide, and the
wooden buckets 5 inches deep, and in propor-
tion to the ftrap, they will hold ,8 of a quart :
then, if there be one for every 15 inches, and
the pulley revolves 27 revolutions in a minute,
it will hoift 200 bufhels in an hour, where
there is a good garner to empty the wheat in- 2°° bufhels.
to. This is fufficient for unloading waggons,
and the fize they are commonly made.

Fig. 6 reprefents the gudgeon of the lower
pulley ; fig. 7 the gudgeon for the fhaft, on
which the upper pulley is fixed. Fix both the
pulleys in their places, but not firmly, fo that
a line ftretched from one pulley to the other^
will crofs the fhafts or gudgeons at right an-
gles. This muft always be the cafe to make
the ftraps work fairly. Put on the ftrap with
the buckets ; draw it tightly and buckle it ;
put it in motion, and if it does not keep fairly
on the pulleys their pofition may be altered a
little. Obferve how much the defcending y[^^^.^ the
ftrap fwags by the weight of the buckets, and 1°^^" ^^[^
I make the cafe round it fo crooked, that the fuitthefwaj
I points of the buckets will not rub in their de- o^^'^^^^'^P'
I fcent, which will caufe them to wear much
! longer and work eafier. The fide boards need
j not be made crooked in dreffing out, but may
I be bent fufhciently by fawing them half way
I or two thirds through, beginning at the upper
I edge, holding the faw very much aflant, the
I point downwards and inwards, fo that inbend-
I ing the parts will ftip paft each other. The
i upper cafe muft be nearly ftraight ; fof if it
I be made much crooked, the buckets will in^

104 CO-NSTRUCTION OF MACHINES.

Chap. UJ^. j]

the eafe
boards

Ait.9j. cline to turn under the frrap. Make the cafes

3-4 of aninch wider .than the {trap and buck-,

ets infide, and i 1-2 inch deeper, that they

% may play freely ; but do not give them roon;

toturnupfide down. If the ftrap and buckets

Bimenfions of be 4 inches, then make the fide boards 5 1-2,
and the top and bottom boards 63-4 inches
wide, of inch boards. Be careful tliat no
ihoulders nor nail-points be left infide of the ca-
fes, for the buckets to catch in. Make the
ends of each cafe, where the buckets enter as
they pafs over the pulleys, a little wider than
the reft of the cafe. Both the pulleys are to
be nicely cafed round to prevent vvafte, not
leaving room for a grain to efcape, continu-
ing the cafe of tlie fame width round the top
of the upper, and bottom of the lower pulley j
then if any of the buckets fhould ever get loofe,
and ft and alkew, they will be kept right by the •
cafe; whereas,if there were any ends of boards'
or Ihoulders, they would catch againft them.

Fig. I. See A B, plate VI. fig. i. The bottom ofij
the cafe of the upper pulley muft be defcend-f

ofcafingthe ing^ fo that what grain may be falling out ofj

^ ^*' the buckets in paffing over the pulleys, may b^l
guided into the defcending cafe. The fhaftii
pafTing through this pulley is made roun4l
where the cafe fits to it : half circles are cud
oat of two boards, fo that they meet and eiB^j
;brace it clofely. The undermoft board, wherei
it meets the Ihaft, is ciphered off infide next
the pulley, to guide the grain inward. But,
it is full as good a way to have a ftrong gud-
geon to pafs through the upper pulley, with a;
tenon at one end, to enter a focket, whiclij
may be in the fhaftjs that is to give it motioni

Chap, HI » Construction OF Machi^^ejs. 105

I This will beft fuit wliere the ftiaftis flioft, and Art.95>
I has to be moved to put the elevator Gnt> anrd
1 in gear.

; The way that I have generally cafed the common way
pulleys is as follows, viz. The top board of them "^^
the upper ftrap-cafe, and the bottom board
of the lower ftrap-cafe are extended pa'ft
the lower pulley to reft on the floor ; and
1 the lower ends of thefe boards are made two
I inches narrower, as far as the pulley-cafe ex-
tends ; the fide board of the pulley is nailed,
or rather fcrewed, to them with wooden
fcrews. The reft of the cafe boards join to
1 the top of the pulley-cafe, both being of one
j width. The blocks whidh the gudgeons of
' trhis pulley run in, are fcrewed f aft to the out-
fide of the cafe boards ; the gudgeons do rmt
pafs quite through, but reach to the bottom of
j 'the hole, which keeps tlie pulley in its pl-ace.
' The faid top and bottom boards, and alfo
i;^ie fide boards of the fbrap-cafes, are extend-
"td ; paft the upper pulley, and the -fide
hoards of the pulley-cafe are fcrewed to them ;
but this leaves a vacancy between the top of
the fide boards of the ftrap-cafes, and fhoul-
ders for the buckets to catch againft. This
vacancy is to be filled up by a Ihort board,
guiding the buckets fafely over the upper pul-
ley. The cafe muft be as ciofe to the points
I tjf the buckets, where they empty, as is fafe,
that as little as poffible may fall down again.
There is to be a long hole cut into the cafe at
B, for the wheat to fall out at, and a fhort Fig. i.pi.vi-
fpout guiding it into the crane-lpout. The top
of the fhort fpout next B, fliould be loofely
faftened in with a buttofi, that it may be ta-

io6 Construction OF MacsInes. Chap, tU^ \

Art. 95. ken ofFj to examine if the buckets empty \
well, &c. Some neat workmen have a much i
better way of cafmg the pulleys, that I can- \
not here defcribe ; what I have defcribed is |
the cheapeft, and does very well. ;

Let the wheat The wheat fhould be let in at the bottom, to '
tom'toprevent Hieet the buckets, and a gate to Ihut as near j
itschoaking. ^Q point of them as poffible, as at A, fig. i. 1
Then if the gate be drawn fufficiently to fill ;
the buckets, and th^ elevator be flopped, the i
wheat will flop running in, and the elevator I
will be free to flart again ; but if it had been!
let in any diilance up, then, when the eleva-
tor flopped, it would fill from the gate to the |
bottom of the pulley, and the elevator could'
nat flart again. If it be in any cafe let in any
diflance up, the gate fhould be fo fixed, that
it cannot be drawn fofar, as to let in the wheat
fafler than the buckets can take it, elfe the
cafe will fill and flop the buckets. If it be let
in fafler at the hindmofl fide of the pulley, than,
the buckets will carry it, the fame evil will
occur ; becaufe the buckets will pufh thej
wheat before them, being more than they can
hold, and give room for too much to come in ;
therefore there fhould be a relief-gate at the;
bottom to let the wheat out, if ever it happens;
to get too much of it in. ;

Give the up- The motiou is to be given to the upper pul-i
tb/^'alTdir''" ^^y °^ "^^ elevators, if it can be done, becaufe;
win carry the Weight in the buckets, caufes the flrap toi
hang tighter on the upper, and flacker on thej
lower pulley ; therefore the upper pulley will;
carry the greatefl quantity without flipping.;
All elevators fhould fland a little flanting,i
becaufe they will difcharge the better. The;

Ghap, Ilh Construction of Machines. ' 107

boards for the cafes fhould be of any unequal An. 95*
lengths, fo that two joints will never come
clofe together, which makes the cafe fl:rong.
Some have joined the cafes at every floor,
which is a great error. There inuft be a door
in the afcending cafe, at the moil; conveni-
ent place, to buckle the ftrap, &c. »Scc.

Of the Crane-Spout.

TO make a Crane-Spout, fix aboard iS condru.^ias
or 20 inches broad truly horizontal or level, "i^H"^^"
as a under B, in plate VI. fig. i* Through
the iniddle of this board the wheat is conveyed,
by a fliort fpout from the elevator. Then
make the fpout of 4 boards, 12 inches wide
at the upper, and about 4 or 5 inches at the
lower end. Cut the upper end off aflant, fo
as to fit nicely to the bottom of the board ;
hang it to a ftrong pin, paffing through the
broad board near the hole through which the
wheat pafles, fo that the fpout may be turned
in any dire6lion andftill cover the hole, at the
fame time it is receiving the wheat, and guid-
ing it into any garner, at pleafure. In order
that the pin may have a ftrong hold of the
board and fpout, there muft be a piece of
cantling, 4 inches thick, nailed on the top of
the board, for the pin to pafs through ; and
another to the bottom, for the head of the pin
to reft on. But if the fpout be long and heavy,
it is bed to Iiarig it on a ihaft, that may ex-
tend down to the floor, or below the collars-
beams, with a pin through it, as x, to turn

1 the fpout by. In crane-fpouts for meal it is

I P

io8 Construction of Machines. Chap, III,

Art. 95. fometimes betl; to let the lower board reach
to, and reft on the floor. If the elevator-ca-
fes and crane-fpout be well fixed, there can
neither grain nor nieal efcape or be wafted
that enters the elevator, until it comes out at
the end of the crane-fpout again.

Ofa^i Elevator to elevate Wheat from a Ship's

Hold J'

confrruaion MAKE the Elevator complete (as it ap-
ft?t"iSrthe pears 35—39 P^^te 8) on the ground, (andv
];H^V^';°^'' i^aife it afterwards.) The pulleys are to be
both nxed m tneir places and caled ; and the
blocks that the gudgeon of the upper pulley
is to. run in, are to be rivetted faft to the cafe
boards of the pulley, and thefe cafe boards-
fcrevyed to the ftrap-cafes by long fcrews,
reaching through the cafe boards edgeways.
Both fides of the pulley-cafe are faftened by
one fet of fcrews. On the outfide of thefe
blocks, round the centre of the gudgeons, are
Circular knobs, 6 inches diameter, and 3 inch-
es long, ftrongly rivetted to keep them frpm
fplitting oiF, becaufe by thefe knobs the whole
weight of the elevator is to hang. In the'
moveable frame 40. 00, 00, are thefe blocks I;
with their knobs^ let into the pieces of the'
frame BC rs. The gudgeons of the upper
pulley p pafs through thefe knobs, and play in
them. Their ufe is to bear the weight of the i
elevator that hangs by them ; the gudgeons
by tiiis means, bear only the weight of the 1
ftrap and its load, as is the cafe with other |

* Sse the defci'ipdon of thh Elevator in art. 9").

Chap. III. Construction of Machines. 109

elevators. Their being circular gives the ele- ah. 95.
vator libert)^ to Aving out from the wall to the
hold of the iliip.

The frame 40 is made as follows : The top
piece A B is 9 by 8, ftrongly tenoned into the
jide pieces A D and B C v/ith double tenons,
which fide pieces are 8 by 6. The piece rs
is put in v/ith a tenon, 3 inches thick, vvhich
is dovetailed, keyed, and drawpinned, vvdth
an iron pin, fo that it can eafiiy be taken out.
In each fide piece A D and B C there is a row
i;of cogs, fet in a circle, that are to play in cir-
.: cular rabbits in the polls p 41. Thei'e circles
''^' are to be deferibed with a radius, whole length
is from the centre of the joint gudgeon G, to
the centre of the pulley 39 ; and the polls muft
be fet up, fo that the centre of the circle, v^'ili
be the centre of the gudgeon G ; then the
gears will be always rip-ht, althoufih the ele-
vator rife and fall to fuit the fnip or tide. The
top of thefe circular rabbits ought to be fo fix-
ed, that the lower end of the elevator may
hang near the v/ali. This nia,y be regulat-
ed by fixing the centre of gudgeon G. II e
length of theie rabbits is regulated by the dii-
I tance the veiiel is to rife and fall, to allow the
! elevator to fvviup- clear of the veffel light at

[ o o

\ high water. The bell: vv'ay to make the cir-
cular rabbits is, to drefs two pieces of 2 iiicli
plank for each rabbit, of the right circle, and
pin them to the pofts, at fuch a cliilance, leav-
ing the rabbit between them.

When the gate and elevator are completed,
and tryed together ; the gate hung in its rab-
bits and played up and dov/n, then the eleva-
tor may be raifed by the ilime pov/er ; that is,
to raife and lov/er it as deicribed, art, 4.

Construction of Machines. Chap, IU^

■ Of ths Meal-Elevator,

LITTLE may be faid of the manner of
conilruding the Meal-Elevator, after what
has been faid in art. 90, except giving the di-
menfions. Make the pulleys 31-2 inches thick,
and 18 inches diameter. Give them no more
than 20 revolutions in a mjnute. Make the
(trap 3 1-2 inches wide, of good, pliant,
white harnefs-leather ; make the buckets either
of v/ood or ilieet-iron, to hold about half a pint ji
each ; put one for every foot of the flrap ;
make the cafes tight, efpecially round the up- h
per pulley, flanting much at bottom, fo that
the m.eal which falls out of the bucket?, may
be guided into the defcending cafe. Let it
lean a little, that it may difcharge the better.
The fpout that conveys the meal from the ele-
vator to the hopper-boy, fhould not have
much more than 45 degrees defcent, that the
meal may run eafily down, and not caufe a
cluft ; fix it fo that the meal will fpread thinly
over its bottom : in its defcent it will coo]
the better. Cover the top of the fpout half-
way down, and hang a thin, light cloth at the
end of this cover, to check all the dull that
may raife, by the fall of the mealfrom the
buckets. Remember to take a large cipher
off the infide of the board, where it fits t6 the
undermoll: fide of the (haft of the upper pulley ;
elfe the meal will work out along the Hiaft,
Make all tight, as directed, and it v/iil effec-
paally prevent waile.

Chap, III, Construction of Machines. iit

In letting meal into an elevator, it muft be An. 96,
let in fome diftance above the centre of the Meaimuiue
pulley, that it may fall clear from the fpout a.iianeeup.
that conveys it in ; otherwife it will clog and
choke. Fig. 4 is the double focket gudgeon
of the lower pulley, to which the Conveyer
joins. Fig. 3, ab cd is a top view of die cafe
that the pulley runs in, which is conftrucled
thus : a b is a ftrongplank, 14 by 3 inches, fteped
in the fill, dovetailed and keyed in the meal-
beam, and is called the main bearer. In this. Frame fortha
at the determined height, is framed the gud- "''^''P'' ®^'
geon bearers ac bd, which are planks 15 by
I 1-2 inches, fet 7 1-2 inches apart, the pul-
ley running between, and refting on them. ;
The end piece c d 7 inches w^de and 2 thick,
is fet in the direftion of the ftrap-cafe, and
extends 5 inches above the top of the pulley ;
to this the bearers arc nailed. On the top of
the bearers, above the gudgeons, are fet two
other planks 13 by i 1-2 inches, rabitted into
the main bearer, and fcrewed fall to the end
piece c d ; thefe are 4 inches above the pulley.
The bottom piece of this cafe Hides in between
the bearers, refting on tv/o elects, fo that it
can be dravv^n out to empty the cafe, if it
fhould ever by any means be overcharged
with meal : this completes the cafe. In the
gudgeon bearer under the gudgeons are mor-
tifes, made about 12 by 2 inches, for the meal
to pafs from the conveyer into the elevator ;
the bottom board of the conveyer trough rells
on the bearer in thefe mor tiles. The ftrap
cafes joins to the top of the pulley cafe, but is
not made faft, but the back board of the de-
fcending cafe is fteped into th.e inhds of the

112 - Construction of Machines. Chap. IIL

Art. 96. top of the end piece c d. The bottom of the !
afcending cafe is to be fupported fteady to its
place, and the board at the bottom nuft be ci-
phered off at the infide, with long and large!
ciphers, making them at the point only i-^j
inch thick; this to make the bottom of the j
cafe wide, for the buckets to enter, if any of}
them fhouldbe a little alkew, becaufe the pul-
ley-cafe is wider than the ftrap-cafes, to givej
room for the meal from the conveyer to fall|
into the buckets ; and in order to keep the paf-
Theremuftbe fage opcn, there is apiece 3 inches wide, and]
iowtrpiiUey-^ 13-4 iiich thick, put on each fide of the pul-
ley, to ft and at right angles with each other,
extending 31-2 inches at each end paft thci
pulley, and are cyphered off, fo as to clear thej
ftrap, and draw the meal under the buckets;]

thefe are called Bangers.

'■•«^&'C^5<^>"

Art. 97. Of the Meal-Conveyer. ^

5'5ate6,fig. 3. 3EE it dcfcribcd, art. 88. Fig. 3, is
a Conveyer joined to the pulley of the Ele-
vator. Fig. 4 is the gudgeon that is put thro*
the lower pulley, to which the conveyer is
joined by a i'ocket, as reprefented. Fig 5 is a
view of laid focket and the band, as it appears
on the end of the fhaft. The tenon of the
gudgeon is fquare, that the focket may lit it
every way alike. Make the Ihaft 51-2 inches
diameter, of eight equal fides, and put on the
^o lay out a fockct and the gudgeon: then, to lay it out
njeai convey- ^^^ thc ilights, begiu at the pulley, mark af

Chap. III. Construction of Machines. ii^

near the end as poffible, on the one fide, and Art. 97.
turning the fliaft the way it is to work, at the
diftance of i 1-2 incli tow^ards the other end,fet
a flight on the next fide ; and thus go on to
mark for a flight on every fide, flili advancing
I 1-2 inchs to the otlier end, which will form
the dotted fpiral Hne, which would drive the
meal the v/rong way ; but the flights are to
be fet acrofs this fpiral line, at an angle of a-
bout 30 degrees, with a line fquare acrofs the
(haft ; and then they will drive the meal the
right way, the flights operating like plows.

To make the flights, take good maple, or to make the
other fmooth hard wood ; faw it in 6 inch
lengths ; fplit it always from the fap to the
lieart ; make pieces 21-2 inches wide, and 3-4
of an inch thick ; plane them fmooth on one
fide, and make a pattern to defcribe them by,
and make a tenon 21-2 inches long, to fuit a
3-4 inch augre. When they are perfed:ly
dry, having the fliaft bored, and the inclina-
tion of the flights marked by a fcribe, drive
them in and cut them oil 21-2 inches from the
fliaft, clrefs them with their foremoll edge
(harp, taking all oif from the back flde, leav-
ng the face fmooth and fl:raight, to puili for-
ivard the meal ; make their ends nearly circu-
lar. If the conveyer be fliort, put in lifting L^fcinsflights.
jiights, with their broad flde foremoil, half the
[lumber of the others, between the fpires of
pliem ; they cool the meal by lifting and let-
ting it fall over the fliaft.

To make the trough for it to run in, take 3
poards, the bottom one 11, back 15, and
jTont 13 inches. Fix the block for the gud-
geon to run in at one end, and fill the comers

114 Construction of Machines. Chap III,

Art. 97- with elects, to ir.ake the bottom nearly circu-
lar, that but little meal may lay in it ; join it
neatly to the pulley-cafe, refting the bottom
oa the bottom of the hole cut for the meal to
enter, and the other end on a fupporter, that
it can be removed and put to its place again
with eafe, without (topping the elevator.

A ineal- elevator • and conveyer thus made,
of good materials, will lafl 50 years, with
very little repair, and fave more meal from
wafte, than will pay for building and repair-
ing them for ever. The top of the trough
mull: be left open, to let the fteam of the meal
out ; and a door may be made in the afcend-
ing cafe of the elevator, about 4 feet long,
to buckle the ftrap tighter, &c. The ftrap of
the elevator turns the conveyer, fo that it will
be eafily flopped if any thing ftiould be caught
in it, being dangerous to turn it by cogs,
donveyer ap- This machine is often applied to cool the meal,
fckemeai"° without the hoppcT-boy, and attend theboult-
ing-hopper, by extending it to a great length,
and conveying the meal immediately into the
hopper, which does very well, and fome pre-
fer it ; but a hopper-boy is preferable where
there is room for one.

.'•<^S>'^c,<S>J...

Art. 98. Of a Grain-Conveyer.

conftniftion THIS machiuc has been conftru<5led' in i

ofagramcou- ^^^-^^^^ of ways, the bcil I take to be as folj

lows, viz. Make a round fhaft, 9 inches dia!

Chap, III, Construction OF Machines. 115

fheet-iron,make a pattern 3 inches broad and Art. 98.
of the true arch of a circle; the diameter of with a fneet-
which (^being the infide of the pattern) is to '^°^^^'"^
be 1 2 inches ; this will give it room to Itretch
along a 9 inch fhaft, io as to make a hally
fpire, that will advance about 21 inches alono-
the (liaft every revolution. By this pattern
cut the fheet-iron into circular pieces, and join
the ends together by riveting, lapping them
fo as to let the grain run freely over the joints ;
when they are joined together they will form
fever al circles, one above the other, Hip it on
the fnaft, and flretch it along as far as you
can, till it comes tight to the ihaft, and fall-
en it to its place, by pins, fet in the ihaft at
the back fide of the fpire, and nail it to the
pins : it will now form a beautiful fpire 21
inches apart, which is too great a diftance ;
therefore there iliould be two or three of thefe
fpires made, and wound into each other, and
ail be put on together, becaufe if one be put
on firft,the others cannot be got on fo well af-
terwards ; they will then be 7 inches apart,
and will convey wheat very fall. If thefe Ipires
be punched full of hol'es like a grater, and the
trough lined with flieet-iron punched full of
fmall holes, it v^ill be an excellent rubber ;
will clean the wheat of the duft and dovvni,
that adheres to it, and fuperfede the neceflity
of any other rubbing-machine.

The fpires may alio be formed w^ith either witha%yooi-
v/ooden or iron flicrhts, fet fo near to each ^°^p'''=-
other in thefpiral lines, as to convey the wheat
from one to another.

1x6 Construction OF Machines. Chap, HI^

Art. 99. Qf the Hopper-Boy

Conftruftion THIS machine has appeared ia various^
of the hopper- conflrudions, the beft of which is repreiented
Fig. 12. by fig. 12 : fee the defcription art. 88.

To make the flight-arms C D, take a piece
of dry poplar, or other foft fcantling 14 feet
long, 8 by 2 1-2 inches in the middle, 5 by
I 1-2 inches at the end, and flraight at the
Fig. 13. bottom ; on this ftrike the middle line a b, fig.
1 3 . Confider which way it is to revolve, and ci-
pher off the under fide of the foremoft edge
from the middle line, leaving the edge 3-4 of
an inch thick, as appears by the fhaded part.
Then, to lay out the liights, take the follow-
ing

RULE.

Todiftance Set vour conipaffes at 4 1-2 diflance, and,

the flights. . •{ ^ ^ .r

begmmng with one loot m the centre c, itep
towards the end b, obfervincr to leflen the dif-
tance one fixteenth part of an inch every Hep ;
this will fet the flights clofer together at the
To make cud than at the centre. Then, to fet the
t^emtraa flights of onc arm to track truly between thofe
of the other, and to find their inclination,
with one point in the centre c, fweep the dot-
ted circles acrofs every point in one arm, then,
without altering the centre or dilfance, make
the little dotted marks on the other arm, and
between them the circles are to be fwept for
To give them tlie flights in it. Then, to vary their inclina-

nation. ^''^^^^ rcgularly from the end to the centre.

the right incli

ilrike the dotted line c d half an inch from the
centre c, and 2 1-2 inches from the middle

Chaplin, Construction OF Machines. 117

line at d. Then with the compafTes fet to half Art. 99.
an inch, let off the inclination from the dotted
circles on the line c d. Then, becanle the line
cd approaches the middle line, the inclination
is greater near the centre than at the end, and
vary regularly. Dovetail the flights into the to put them
arm, obferving to put the fide that is to drive ^"'
the meal to the line of inclination. The bot-
toms of them Ihouldnot extend pail the mid-
dle line, the ends bein^ all rounded and dref-
fed off at the back fide to make the point lliarp,
leavmg the driving fide quite flraight hke the
flight r. See them complete in the end e a.
The fweepers fnould be 5 or 6 inches long, sweepers.
icrewed on behind the flights, at the back fide
of the arms, one at each end of the arm, and
one at the part that paiTes over the hopper :
their uie isdefcribed art. 88.

The upright ihaft fliould be 4 by 4 inches, and uprightfliaft-

made round for about 41-2 feet at the lower

end, to pafs lightly through the centre of the

arm. To keep the arm fleady, there is a

flay-iron 15 inches high, its legs 1-2 inch by

j-4, to ftride 2 feet: The ring at the top

Ihouid fit the fnaft neatly, and be fm coth and

rounded infide, that it may Aide eafily up and

down : by this the arm hangs to the rope that

pafles over a pulley at the top of the fliaft 8

inches diameter, with a deep groove for the

rope or cord to run in. Make the leading

arm 6 by i 1-4 inches in the middle, 2 by

I I inch at the end, and 8 feet long. 1 his arm

I m'uft be braced to the cog-wheel above, to

j keep it from fplitting the fliaft by any extra

I fl:refs.

ii8 Construction of Machines. Chap, IU,

Art. 99. ] The weight of the balance w muft be fo near

equal to the weight of the arm, that when it
is raifed to the top it will defcend quietly.
' In the bottom cf the upright Ihaft is the
ftep-gudgeon (fig. 15) which paffes through
the fquare plate 4 by 4 inches, (fig. 14) on
this plate the arm refls, before the flights
touch the floor. The ring on the lower end
of the fhaft is lefs than the fhaft, that it may
pafs through the arm : this gudgeon conies
out every time the ihaft is taken out cf the
arm.
For attending If the machlue is to attend but one boulting-
bSppeir'"'^^^^PP^i'j it need not be above 12 or 1 3 feet
long. Set the upright Ihaft clofe to the hop-
per, and the flights all gather as the end c b.
Two hoppers, fig. 1 3, But if it IS to attend for the grinding
of two pair of {tones, and two hoppers, make
it 15 feet long, and fet it between them a lit-
tle to one fide of both, fo that the two ends
may not both be over the hoppers at the fame
time, which would make it run unileady j
then the flights between the hoppers and the
centre muft drive the meal outwards to the
fweepers, as the end c a, fig. 13.

If it is to attend two hoppers, and cannot
be fet between them for want of room, then
fet the fhaft near to one of them ; make the
flights that they all gather to the centre, and
put fweepers over the outer hopper which v/ill
be firll fupplied, and the furplus carried to the
other. The machine will regulate itfelf to
attend both, although one fhould feed three
times as faft as the other.
Threphop- If it be to attend three hoppers, fet the fliaft

^"^° near the middle one, and put fweepers to fill

Chap, III, Construction of Machines. 119

the other two, the furplus will come to the Art. 99.
centre one, and it will regulate to feed all
three ; but ihould the centre hopper ever Hand
while the others are going (of either theie lafl
applications) the fhgnts next the centre mufl
be moveable that they may be turned, and fet
to drive the meal out, from the centre ; hop-
per-boys ihould be mov^ed by a llrap in fome should be
part of their movement, that they may eafily j^^o^^dbya
ftop if any thing catch in them ; but fever al
ingenious mill-wrights do prefer cogs ; they
Ihould not revolve more than 4 times in a mi-
nute.

This machine may be made of a great ma-
ny different forms and conflruftions on the
fame principles, to anfwer the fame end, ii:^
a leiler degree ofperfedion.

Of the Drill. Art. 100.

SEE the defcription art. i. The pulleys
ftiould not be lefs than 10 inches diam^eter for
meal, and more for wheat. The cafe they
run in is a deep narrow trough, fay 16 inches
jdecp, 4 wide, pulleys and ftrap 3 inches. The
rakes are little fquare blocks of willow or pop-
jiar, or any foit wood, that will not fpiit with
idle nails, all of one fize that each may take an
bqual quantity, nailed to the ftrap with long,
linall nails, with broad heads, which are infide
die ftrap : the meal fiiould be let into them al-

ways above the centre of the pulley, or at
lie top of it, to prevent its choking.

I20 Construction ©f Machines. Chap I//,\

Art. loo. which it is apt to do, if let in low. The mo-'
tion Ihouid be flow for meal ; but maybe morei
lively for wheat. |

Diredions for tifing a Hopper-Boy, \

1. When the meal-elevator is fet in motion|
to elevate the meal, the hopper-boy muil bej
fet in motion alio, to fpread and cool it ; andj

^ as foon as the circle is full, the boults may be!

flarted ; the grinding and boultlng may like-i
wife be carried on together regularly, whichi
is the beft way of working. i

2. But if you do not choofe to boult as yonj
grind, turn up the feeding fweepers, and let;
the hopper-boy- fpread and cool the meal, and;
rife over it ; and when you begin to boult turn
them down ao;ain.

3. If you choofe to keep the warm meal fe
parate from the cool, fliovel about 18 inches
of the outfide of the circle in towards the
centre, andturn the end flights, to drive themea"
outwards, it will fpread the v/arm meal out-
wards, and gather the cool meal in the boult-
ing-hopper. As foon as the ring is full witt
warm meal, rake it out of the reach of the,
hopper-boy, and let it fill again. i

4. To mix tail-Hour or bran, &c. with si
quantity of meal that is under the hopper-boy,j
make a hole for it in the meal quite to thej
floor, and put it in ; and the hopper-boy wil''
mix it regularly with the whole. I

5. If it does not keep the hopper full, tun!
the feeding fweeper a little lower, and throw
a little meal on the top of the arm, to makej
it fmk deeper into the meal. If the fpread-j

Zhap, IF, Construction of Machines. , 121

ng fweepers difcharge their loads too foon, Art. i»o.
md do not trail the meal all around the circle,
urn them a little lower ; if they do not dif-
harge, but keep too full raife them a little.

CHAPTER IV.

— '^^ —

HE Utility of these Inventions Art. lor.^^
AND Improvements. ;

3R. Wiftar, of. Philadelphia, has difcovered ^^^^m^'^
and proved by many experiments (which yeries, fhew-
bcommunicated to the American philofophical hfofoonmade
fciety, and which they have publilhed in the bj them^^"^
yd volume of their tranfaftions) that cold is cknes.
lie principal agent in caufing moiflure to e va-
lerate from bodies ; and the fa6l is evident
[:om daily obfervation, viz. that it is the dif-
^irent degrees of heat and cold, between the
if and bodies, that caufes them to caft off or
antraft moiilure.

ifl:. We fee in all fudden tranfitions from
J) extreme cold air to a warm, that the walls
Oj houfes, ftones, ground, and every thing
tjit retains cold, contrails moiilure ; and it
-j'tainly has the fame eife^l: on meal.

j2. In all fudden changes from Vv^arm to cold,
'liry thing cafts off its moiilure ; for inftance,
Ajiat great quantities of water will difappear

122 Utility op the Improvements. Chap. IV.

Art. loi, from the ground, in one cold night : this is the
reafon why meal being warm gets fo dry in
cold weather, and bolts fo free ; whereas it
is always harder to bolt when there is a change]
from cold to warm. '

3. If you warm a razor, or a glafs, warm-
er than your breath, neither of them will be'
fuUied by it.

4. Fill a glafs-bottle with cold water in a
warm day, and wipe it dry, and there will bei
prefently feen on its outfide large drops, col-j
le6ted from the mdiflure of the air, though thej
bottle ftiil continues full. !

Meaiihouid From thcfe inflauces, it is evident, that thd
thuJho't S i^eal lliould be fpread as thin as pofFible, anc
itwiiicaftout be kept in motion from the moment it leave

the moifture, in •!•• iii • t

and will not tiic itoues, uutii it IS cold, that It may nave ;

breed worms, fair Opportunity of caflingoif its moifture, whic)
will be done more effediuaily in that time, thai
can poflibly be efFe6led in warm weather, i
any reafonable time, after it has grown col
in a heap and retained its^iiioiflure ; and tlier
is no time for infects to depofit their egg;
that may in time breed the worms, that ar
often found in the heart of barrels of fiour we

Souits better packed, and by the moifture being caft 01
more effectually, it will not be fo apt to fouijj

And does the Therefore one great advantage is that the mek

JeTierper- ^-^ hcttcr prepared foT houhingy packing and kee^

feftioH. i^^g ill much lefs time,

2. They do the luorkto much greater perfedm
by cleaning the grain and fcreenings more e[
feftually, hoifting and bolting over great paj:
of the flour, and grinding and boulting ovf ^
the middlings, all at one operation, mixiii;
thofe parts that are to be mixed, and fepara-

Chap. IV. Utility OF THE LmprovementS. 123

ing fuch as are to be feparated more efFe6lu- Art. lor.

alfy.

3. They fave much meal from being luafted, withicfs
if they be well coiiftru6i:ed, becaiife there is '''^^^*
no neccffity of trampling in it, which trails it
wherever we walk, nor llioveling it about to

raife a duft that flies away, <Scc. This article
of faving will fooripay the firfl coft of buildings
and keep them in repair afterwards.

4. They afford more room than they take up. Afford more
becaufe the whole of the meal-loft that here- ''°°"'"
tofore was little enough to cool the meal

on, may now be fpared for other ufes, except
the circle defcribed by the hopper-boy ; and
the wheat-garners may be filled from one fto-
ry to another, up to the crane-fpout, above
the collar-beams ; fo that a fm all part of the
ihoufe will hold a great quantity of wheat, and
lit may be drawn from the bottom into the ele-
vator as wanted. , ...

5. They tend to di [patch bufinefs by finifhing Difpatchmore
'as they go; fo that there is not as much time
jexpended in grinding over middlings, which

|will not employ the power of the mill, nor in
jcleaning and grinding the fcreenings, they be-
ing cleaned every few days, and mixed with
ithe wheat; and. as the labour is eafier the
miller can keep the Hones in better order, and
jmore regularly and fteady at work, efpeci-
jally in the night time, when they fre-
jquently flop for want of help, whereas one
;man, for a time, would be fufficient to attend
iiix pair of Hones running (in one houfe) well
jattended by machinery. *

I ■' R

1-4

Utility OF t HE ImpkoyemenT's. ^ha^p^i^.

Art. iCr.

Vv^m laft a
long time.

Require lefs
pov/er.

Save a great
expence.

2S9 cioUors a
year in board
and v.'ages, in
a double mill.

h, They lafl a Img "time wh'h hut little :exip:enc€
of repair, becaufe their motions are flow ^andi
€afy.

7. They hoift thsgtm'n and m&ai withJefs pdiir-
er, •mi'diflitrh tJ>e 7notion''of'the 'mitt ranch kfs
'than fhe-oid wd'y-y feecaufe tlie defcendifig ^ftrap ,
bafences'the afbending one, fo that dlereis iioi
fjjbi"-6-^'6wer ^ufed, thaa 'to hoift the .^rain <m*|
meal itfelf ; whereas in the okl way for €vdry i
3 'bufels of wheat, which fills a 4 biafhel tub!
wMi meal, the tub has to be haifted, the;
Weighs of which is equail to a bmifhel of wheat, i
<:ohfequ6ntly the poXver lifed, is as '3 for thfe;
-elevator to 4 for the tubs, ivhiich is one fourth!
iefs wi'th elevators than tubs: behdes, the^
'weight '^ 4 bu^els of wheat, thrso wfi at oncei'
on the wheel, always checks 'the motion, be^j
fore the tab is up ; tlae ftone finks a tele, andu
the mill is put out of tune every tub-full, which,
makes a great difference in a year's grinding ;: ;
this is worthy of notice Vv-hen water is fcarce.

8. They fave a great expence of attendance..
One half of the hands that were formerly re-;
quired are no«w lufScient, and their labour ie
eaiier. Formerly one hand was required foii
every 10 barrels of flour that the mill made
daily ; now one for every 20 barrels is fuffici-
ent. A mill that made 40 barrels a day, re-
quired four men and a boy ; two men are novV
fuiScient.

Two men's wages, at 7 dolls, each,
per month, ^ - -

Boarding &c. for do. at i 5I. per
year, - _ _ -

One boy's board, cloathing, &;c.

i68dolls.i

CImp. IV. Uti LiTY OF theJmp^ovements. 125

There appeai^s a faviiig of 298 dollars a Art. loi.
year, in the article of wages and bo,g.rd, in
one double mill.

following certiticates.

In fuppart of what is liere, faid, I add the

f J ^ do certify that we have erected Oliver certificates

/I/ r-- > • 1 1 n ^ confirming the

■ V r.vaus s new-^invented mode 01 elevat- above.

iiig, conveying, and cooling meal, &c. As
far ij we have experienced, we have found
them to anfvver a valuable purpofe, w^ell wor-
thy the attention of any perfon concerned ^
merchant, or even extenfive country mill's,
who wifnes to ieiTen the labour and expence
6f manufafturing wheat into flour.

JOHN ELLICOTT,
JONATHAN ELLieOTT, , .
GEORGE ELLICOTT,
NATHANIEL ELLICOTT.

Ellicott's mills, Baltimore county, ^
{late of Maryland, Aug. 4, 1790. ^

WE the fubfcribers do hereby certify, that
we have introduced Oliver Evanses im-
provements into our mills at Brandiwine, and
have found them to anfwer, as reprefented
to us by a plate and defcription : alio to be a
igreat faving of wafle, labour and expence,
iand not fubjecl: to get out of order. We there-
jfore recommend them as Vv^ell v/orthy the at-

126 Utility of the Improvements. Chap, IV.

Art. lOi.

tention of thofe concerned in manufacturing
grain into flour.

JOSEPH TATNALL,

THOMAS LEA,

SAMUEL HOLLINGSWORTH,

THOMAS SHALLCROSS,

CYRUS NEWLIN.

Brandywine mills, 3rd
month, 28th, 179 1.

^ !

in. ^

'E do certify, that we have ufed 0 liver \
Evanses machinery, for the fpace of'
two years, in our mills, at Peterlburg, in |
Vu'ginia, coniifting of three water-wheels, j
and three pair of ftones : and we judge that ,
they have been, and will continue to be, a|
faying of 300 dollars per year. i

N. ELLICOTT, Sc Co, ' \
F^b, 2Q, 1794- j

IV. I

"E do certify, that we have ufed Oliver]
Evans's patent machinery in our mills, |
at Manchefter, in the ftate of Virginia, con-'
filHng of three v/ater- wheels, and three pair^
of ftones, for the fpace of one year, andwe|
judge upon fair calculations, that they are a|
faving to us of 300 dollars per annum. ;

NICHOLSON & TAYLOR, j

i
Many more to the fame purpofe might bel

added, but thefe may fuffice.

Chap. V. Bills of Materials. 127

Suppofmgthe reader is now fully convinced Art. loi.
of the utility of thefe improvements, I pro-
ceed to give the following bills of materials.

CHAPTER V.

Bills of Materials to be provided for build- Art. lO^,

ING AND constructing THE MACHINERY.
,^>

F,or a WbeaL-Elevator 4.3 Feet high, -with a
'• Strap 4 inches wide,

THREE fides of ffood, firm white harnefs ^^" «( ,
^ materials for

leather. the wheat-

220 feet 01 inch pine, or other boards, that *''"'^^'^''^-
are dry, of about 12 i -2 inches wide, for
the cafes: thefe are to be dreifed, as follows:
86 feet in length, 7 inches wide, for the top

and bottom.
86 feet in length, 5 inches wide, with the
j edges truly fquared,, for the fide boards.
I A quantity of inch boards for the garners, as
i they may be wanted.

} A good but of willow or flieet-iron, for the
j buckets.

I 2000 tacks, 14 and 16 ounce fize, the larg-
I eft about half an inch long, for the buckets.

I2B

Bit 1^9 OF Materials,

Qhap. F,

Art. 102, 31b. of 8d. and lib. ot lod. naik,. for, the

cafes.
2 doz-en erf large ^yQer(d fcrevys (bvtt. riaib will

do) for puiley-cafes.
16 feet of 2 inch plank for pulleys.
1 6 feet of ditto, for cog-wheels, and dry pine

fcantling 4 1-2 by 4 1-2, or 5 by 5 inches,

to give it motion.

Smithes Bill of Iron,

Biiiofiron. I ^ouble gudgcon 3-4 inch,(fuchasfig.6.pl.VI)
5 inches between the Ihoulders, 3 3-4 inches
between the holes, the necks, or gudgeon-
part, 3 inches.
I fmall gudgeon, of the common fize, 3-4
inch thick.

1 gudgeon an inch thick, (fig. 7) neck 3 1-4,
tang 10 inches, to. be next the upper pul-
ley- " ^ i

2 fmall bands, 4 1-4 inches from the outfides.

I harncfs-buckle, 4 inches from the outfides,
with 2 tongues, of the form of fig. 12.

Add whatever m.oire may be wanting fori
the gears, that are for giving it motion. !

For a Meal-Elevator 43 Feet high^ Strap 3 i-2j
Inches wide^ and a Conveyer for tiro pair cj\
Stones,

For a Meal 270 fcct of dry pine, or other inch boards,

elevator. t-t n t ■ -> • j

molt of tnem ii 1-2 or 12 mcnes wide,
of any length, that they may fuit to be drei-
{ed for the cafe-boards, as follows :

Chap.V, Bills o^FMATERiALf*'^ 1^29

■%6 feet in length, 6 I -2 inches wide, for tops Art. lon.

and bottoms of the cafes.
8^ feet in leiigch, 4 1-2 inches wide, for the

fide boards, truly fquared at the edges.
The back board of the conveyer trough 15

inches, bottom do. 11 inches, and front

13 inches wide.
Some two inch plank for the pulleys and cog-
wheels.
Scantling for conveyers 6 by 6, or 5 1-2 by

5 1-2 inches, of dry pine or yellow poplar ;

(prefer light wood) pine for lliafts, 41-2

by 4 1-2 or 5 by 5 inches.

2 1-2 fides of good, pliant hamefs-leather.

1500 of 14 ounce tacks.
A good, clean but of willow for buckets, un-

lefs the pieces that are left, that are too

fmall for the wheat-buckets, will make the

meal-buckets.
41b. of 8d. and lib. of lod. nails.
2 dozen of large wooden fere ws (nails will do)

for the pulley-cafes.

Smith^ s Bill of Iron,

BillofiroH.

i double gudgeon, (fuch as fig. 4..pl.VI,) i 1-2
inch thick, 71-2 inches betvv^een the necks, 3
1-4 between the ke3^-holes, the necks i 1-2
I inch loner, and the tenons at each end of the
I fame length, exadily fquare, that the focket
I may fit every way alike.
|2 fockets, one for each tenon, fuch as ap-
1 pears on one end of fig. 4. The diftance
I between the outfide of the flraps with the
I nails in, muft be 5 1-4 inches : fig. 5 is an
1 end view of it, and the band that drives

130 B I L L s OF Mat er 1 a t s. Chap. V, \

Art. ro2. over it at the end of the ftiaft, as they ap- 1

pear on the end of the conveyer.

2 fmall 3-4 inch gudgeons for the other endsj
of the conveyers. i

4 thin bands 5 1-2 inches from the outfides, i
for the conveyers.' j

I gudgeon an inch thick, neck 31-4 inches, I
and tang, 10 inches, for the Ihaft in the!
upper pulley and next to it ; but if a gud-'
geon be put through the pulley, let it be ofi
the, form of fig. 6, with a tenon and focketi
at one end, like fig. 4. I

I harnefs-buckle, 3 1-2 inches from the out-^
fides, v\rith two tongues : fuch as fix. 1 2, pi. 6. |

Add whatever more fmall gudgeons and
bands may be neceffary for giving motion. !

For a Hopper-Boy » !

For a hopper- I piccc of dry, hard, clean pine fcantling,;
4 1-2 by 4 1^2 Inches, and 10 feet long, fori
the upright Ihaft. i

I piece of dry poplar, foft pine, or other foft'
light wood,' riot fubjed to crack and fplit inj
working, 8 by 2 1-2 inches, 15 or 16 feet!
long, for the flight arms. |

Some 2 inch plank for wheels to give it mo-j
tion, and fcanthng 4 1-2 by 4 1-2 inches.j
for the fliafts. - \

So flights 6 inches long, 3 inches wide, anc|
1-2 inch at one, and 1-4 at the other edge,
thinner at the fote than hind end, that the5
may drive in tight like a dovetail wedge.
Thefe may be made out of green hard ma-
ple, fplit from fap to heart, and fet to dry.

boy

\Chap* V, BILLS OF MATERIALS. I3I

Half a common bed-cord, for a leading line, Art. 102.
and balance rope.

Smithes Bill of Iron*

ifl:ay-iron,CFE,plateVII,fig. 12. Theheight
from the top of the ring F, to the bottom of
the feet C E, is 1 5 inches ; diftance of the points
of the feet C E 24 inches ; fize of the legs
1-2 by 3-4 inch ; fize of the ring F i by 1-4
inches, round and fmooth infide ; 4 inch-
es diameter, the infide corners rounded
off, to keep it from cutting the fhaft ; there
muft be two little loops or eyes, one in
each quarter, for the balance-rope to be
hung to either, that may fuit bed.

2 fcrews (with thumb-burs that are turned by
the thumb and fingers) 1-4 of an inch thick,

.:: and 3 inches long, for the feet of the ftay-
iron.

2 do. for the end flights, 31-2 inches long,
rounded i 1-2 inch next the head, and fquare
I 1-4 inch next the fcrew, the round part
thickeft.

2 do. for the end fweepers, 61-4 inches long,
rounded i inch next tlie head, 1-4 inch
thick.

2 do. for the hopper fweepers, 81-2 inches
long and 1-4 inch thick, (long nails with
rivet heads will do.)

I ftep-gudgeon (fig. 15) 2 1-2 inches long
below the ring, and tang 9 inches, 3-4 inch
thick.

I plate 4 by 4, and 1-8 inch thick, for the
ftep-gudgeon to pafs through (fig. 14.)

132 MILL FOR HULLING RICE, &C. Chap, V.

Art. 102. I band for the ftep-gudgeon, 3 3-4 inches di-
ameter ; from the outlides it has to pafs thro*
the ftay-iroii.
1 gudgeon and band, fdr the top of the fnaft,
gudgeon 3-4 inch, band 4 inches diameter
from the outfides.

The fmith can, by the book, eafily under-
Pcand how to make thefe irons : and the read-
er may, from thefe bills of m.aterials, make a
rough eilimate of the whole expence, which
he will fmd very low compared with their
utility.

Art. 103,

^ Mill for hulling and cleaning Rice,

PLATE X. fig. 2. The rice brought
to the mill in boats, is to be emptied into the
hopper I, out of which it is conveyed, by the
conveyer, into the elevator at 2, which ele-
vates it into the garner 3 ; on the third floor
it defcends into the garner 4, that hangs over
the flones 5, and fuppiies them regularly.
The flones are to be drelTed with a few deep
furrows, with but little draught, and picked
full of large holes ; they mmft be {et more than
the length of the grain apart. 7 he hoop
fliould be lined infide with flronp- iheet-iron,and
if punched full of holes it will do better. The
grain is kept under the ftone as long as necef-
i'ary, by caufuig it to rife fome diflance up
the hoop, to get out through a hole, which
is to be made higher or lower by a gate, flid-
ing in the bottom of it.

■ Chap* V. MILL FOR HULLING RICE, &C. I33

The principle by which the grain is hulled, Art. r^j-

is that of rubbing them againil one another

with great force, between the flones, by

which means they hull one another, without

being broke by the iiiones, near as much as by

the ulual way /^ As it paiies through the Itones

5, it fhouid fall into a roiling-fcreen or lliak-

ing-fieve 6, made cf wire, with fuch niailies as

will let out, at the head, all the fand and duft,

which may be let run through the floor into

the water, if convenient : and to let the rice

and moft of tiie heavy chaff fall through into

the conveyer, which will convey it into the

elevator at 2. The light chaff, &c. that does

not pafs through the heve, Vv'ill fall out at the

tail, and if ufelefs may alfo run into the water,

, and float away. There may be a fan put on

I the fpindle, above the trundle, to make alight

i blafl, to blow out the light chaff and dull,

I which iliould be conveyed out through the

I wall : and this fan may iuperfede the neceffity

I of the fliaking-fieve. The grain and heavy

i chaff are elevated into garner 7, thence it de-

; fcends into garner 8, and pafTes through the

; ftoiies 9, which are to be fixed and dreifedthe

1 fame way as the others, and are onl}^ to rub

I the grain harder : the fnarpnefs en the outfide

I of the chatf (which nature feems to have pro-

jvided for the pupofe) will cut off all the infide

I hull from the grdin, and leave it perfe611y

j clean ; then, as it falls fi cm thefe (tones

)

By trying rnany experiments, and with much ] about, {Li-'iving. to invent
anew machine for riibbiaj^ the duit off lli3 grains ol wheat, and breaking the
I lumps ofduft mixed with wheat that is tread on the ground ; and for fuelling
j off the white caps, breakinjr the rotten, fiy-eat?n, and fmut grain';, and to
I break the garlick, Ice. I dlicovered this principle ; \\ hich I aiterv/ards uied
j with a common pair of bur mill-liones, properly dreSed for grinding v/heat,
I and always found it to fucceed weJ!, without breakinjj any good grains,
I grinding the white caps to fine dufl.

134 MIIL FOR HULLING RICE, &C. Chap, V.

Art. 103. it paflTes through the wind of the fan 10,
fixed on the fpindle of the ftones 9, which
will blow out the chaff and duft, and drop
them in the room 21 : the wind Ihould efcape
tiirough tlie wall. There is a regulating board
that moves on a joint at 2j, fo as to take all
the grain into the conveyer, which will con-
vey it into the elevator at 1 1 , which elevates
it into the garner 12, to pafs through the roll-
ing-fcreen 13, which fhould have wire of 3
fized mafhes: firft, to take out the dull, to
fall into a part 17, by itfelf ; fecond, the
fmail rice into an apartment 16 ; the whole
grains fall into garner 14, perfe^^ly clean, and
^re drawn into barrels at 15. The fan 18 blows
out the dull;, and lodges it in the room 19,
and the wind paffes out at 20 ; the head rice
falls at the tail of the fcreen, and runs into
the hopper of the ftones 5, to go through the
whole operation again. Thus the whole is
completely done by the water, by the help ol;
the machinery from the boat, until ready tc
put into the barrel, without the leaft manual;
labour.

Perhaps it may be necelTary to make a few
furrows in the edge of the ftone, flanting, at ar
angle of about 30 degrees with a perpendicu-
lar line, thefe furrows will throw up the grair
next the ftone, on the top of that in the hoof
which will change its pofition continually, b}
which means it will be better cleajied : but thi;
lii^y probably be done without.

gND OF PART TmRD,

PART THE FOURTH.

THE

Young Miller's Guide:

CONTAINING,
THE WHOLE PROCESS OF THE ART OF

MANUFACTURING GRAIN

INTO

FLOUR:

EXPLAINED IN ALL ITS BRANCHES, ACCORDING TO THE MOST IM-
PROVED PLANS PRACTISED IN THE BEST MERCHANT AND
FLOUR MILLS, IN

AMERICA.

CONTENTS-

Of part the fourth.

Ckap. I. The principies of grinding, and rules
for draughting the furrows of Mill-flones.

Ch ap ,11. Directions for furrowing oc hanging
ready for grinding a new pair of bur-ftones,
and keeping tiiem in good face, for fliarp-
ening thcni and grinding to the right fine-
nefs ; fo as to clean the bran v/ell, and make
but little coarfe flour. »

Chap. IIT. Of Gariick — with diredions for
grinding wheat mixed with it, and drefling
the flones fuitable thereto.

Chap. IV. Of grinding the Middlings, and
other coarfe flour over again, to make the
beft profit of them.

Chap. V. Of the quality of flones to fuit the
quality of the wheat.

Chap. VI. Of bolting-reels and cloths, with
dired:ions for bolting and infpeCiing flour.

Chap. VII. Of the duty of the miller, in
keeping the bufmefs in order.

Peculiar accidents by which Mills are fubjed
to take fire.

Of improving Mill-feats.

'^C'^^''^^'^'^^^'''^'^'^'^^^'-^^'^:^^^-^

THE

Young Miller's Guide.

■••<<3^c<So^>.,

CHAPTER I.

" — <^> — -

I THE PRINCIPLES OF GRINDING EXPLaInED, WITH

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON LAYING OUT THE FUR- Art. 104.
I ROWS IN THE STONES, WITH A PROPER. DRAUGHT.

TH E end we have in view, in grinding
the grain, is, to reduce it to flich a de-
I gree of finenefs, as is found by experience to
\ make the beft bread, and to put it in fuch a
I ft ate, that the flour may be moft effectually
i feparated from the bran or fkin of the grain,
I by means of fifting or bolting : and it has
I been proved by experience, that to grind the
I grain fine with dull mill-ftones, will not anfwer
I faid purpofe well, becaufe it kills or deftroys
i that lively quality of the grain, that caufes it
i T ■

140 Principles of Grinding* Chap. L

Alt. 104. to ferment and raife in the baking : it alfo
niakes the meal fo clammy, tbat it flicks to
the cloth, and chokes up the maflies in bolt-
ing. Hence it appears, that itiliould be made
fine with as littde preiiiire as poffible ; and
it is evident, that this cannot be done without
Iharp inftrumentsi Let us ftippofe we under-
take to opera?te 6n one fingie grain, I think it
feems reafonable, that we fliould firfl: cut it
into feveral pieces, with a iharp inflrument,
to put it in a ftate^ fuitabie for being palTed
between two plains, in order to be reduced
to one regular finenefs. The planes iliould
have on their faces a number' of little fharp
edges, to fcrape off the meal from the bran,
and be fet at fuch a dillance, as to reduce the
meal to the required finenefs, and no finer,
fo that no part can efcape unground. The
fame rules or principles will ferve for a quanti-
fy;., that Vv'i lifer ve for one grain.

Therefore, to prepare the fcones for grind-
ing to the greatefl: perfecflion, we may con-
clude that their faces mull be put in fuch or-
der, that they will firfl cut the grain into- fe-
.veral pieices, and then pafs it between theto,
in fuch a nianner, that none can efcape with-
out being grmuid to a certain degree of fine-
nefs, and at the fame time fcrape the meal off
clean from the bran or ikin.

The beftway ^' "^^^'^ ^^^^ ^^^Y ^^^^'^^ ^ liave yct found to
of facing and eifcft this is, (after the ilones are faced with
fto^nes"'"^ tJie flaff and the pick) to grind a few quarts
of iliarp fine fan d ; this v/ill face them to fit
each other fo exii.£lly, that no meal can pafs j
between them, without being ground : it is
alfo the bell way of iharpening all the little

CJysip, I. Principles of Grinding. 141

edges on the face, that are formed by the pores An. 134.
of the ftone, (but iniiead of fand, water may
;b;e ufed, the (lones then face each other) {o
that they wiii fciape the meal off of the bran,
without too much preiiure being appUed. But
as the meal wiii not pafs from the centre to
the periphery or verge of the itones, foon
enough, without fome ailiflance, there niuli be
a number of furrows, to affiil it in its egrefs-; Theremuftbe
-and tiiefe furrows nmil be fet with iuch a{w7^*"
firaught, tiiat tlie meal will not pais too far
along them at once, without paffnig over the
land or plain, left it faould get out unground.
They Ihould alfo be of fuificient depths, to ad-
mit air enough to pafs though tlie ftones to
carry out the heat generated by the friftion Thehufe.
of grinding ; but if they have too much
draught, they will not bear to be deep, for
the meal will efcape along them unground.
Thefe furrows ought to be made iharp at the
feather edge (which is the hinder edo;e of the

to V ^ i3

furrow, and the foremoft edge of the land)
Vv'hich ferves i\\Q purpofe of cutting down the
grain ; they ihould be more numerous near
the centre, becaule there the oihce of the
ftone is to cut the grain, and near the periphe-
ry their office is (ihat of the two plains) to
reduce the Hour to its required finenefs, and
ifcrape the bran clean by the edges, formed by
ithe numerous little pores with v/hich the burr
|ftone abounds. However, we muft confider, shouWbevery

i^r, „i.*^- ^'/I^J ^' r> /T_ hard near tha

j-nat It 13 not oeit to nave tne itones too iharp eye.
jaear the eye, becaufe they then cut the bran
[too fine. The ftones incline to keep open near
the eye, unlefs they are too clofe. If they
jare porous (near tlie eye) and will keep open

142 Principles of Grinding. Chap, /,

Art. 104. without picking, they will always be a littlq 1
dull, which will flatten the bran, without cut- 1
ting it too much. Again, if they be foft next
the eye, they will keep too open, and that
part of the (lone will be nearly ufelefs. There- !
fore they fliould be very hard and porous. |
It is alfo neceffary, that we drefs the face 1
of the ftone in fuch a form, as to allow room I
for the grain or meal, in every ftage of itsj
paffage between the ftones. In order to un-i'
derfland this, let us conceive the flream of|
wheat, entering the eye of the ftone, to bej
about the thicknefs of a man's finger, but in-i
ftantly fpreading; every way over the wholel
face of the ftone ; 'therefore this ftreami muftii
get thinner^' as it approaches the periphery

Their faces { whcre it wouM bc thinner than a fine hair, if!

fhould touch • ■,. -1 r n ^ • i ; , r ' -li

it did not pals liower as it becomes nner, anp|
if the ftones were not kept apart hy the bran)j
for this reafon the ftones muft be drefled fo~,|
that they will not touch at the centre, withjrij
about a 1 6th or 20t;h part of ati inch, but to get!
clofer gradually, till ^vith in about id or j:2J
inches from the verge of the ftone, proportion-!
ed to the diameter, and from that part ouii
they muft fit nicely together. This clofe parij
is called the flouring of the ftone. The fur j
rovvsiiiould be deep near the centre, to admij
the wheat in its chopt ftate, and the air, whiclj
tends to keep the ftones cool.* ^ ,

The britige * It is aiTerted by Tome (and I believe, not without reafon) that it is abfc|

fiiould be Intel)' neceiTary to have a bridgc-':ree that fliall have a degree of elafticitj!

frlailic.;. which gives the ftone a tremulousmotion up and down, and therefore affec^j

a trituration more , completely, making; more lively flour than it would dcj

fnppofmg the bridge-tree to be a folid immoveable rock. But what i^ th]

proper degree of elafticity, or fize of a bridge-tree, fuitable to the m ei»ht <

the ftone, I know not; not having experienced thi^ m:itter fuiliciently, t]

give an opinion on it : but I am inclined to think that this is an error. \

One difadyantage in having a very elaftic, bridge-tree, is, when the ftont

run empty, they come together with more force, and heat quicker; anj

if once made red hot, it totally deftroys tiae good fliarp quality of the bur, ;|

•far as tlie keat penetrates. ,>., !

only ro inche
from the
Ikirts.

Chap, /. Draught of the Mill-Stones. 143

Of the Draught necejfary to he given to the Fur- Art. 105.
roius of Mill-Atones.

FROM thefe principles and ideas, and the of the
laws of central forces, explained art. 13, 1 thefLrows.
form my judgment of the proper draught of
the furrows, and the manner of drefs, in which
I find but few of the beft millers to agree ;
fome prefer one kind, and fome another,
which Ihews that this necefTary part of the
millers art, is not yet generally well under-
flood. In order that this matter may be more
fully difcufled and better underftood, I have
conftruded fig. 3, plate XL AB reprefents
the eight quarter, C D the twelve quarter,
and E A the central drefs. Now we obferve
that in the eight quarter drefs, the (hort fur-
rows at F have about five times as much draught
as the long ones, and crofs one another like a
Ipair of fneers, opened fo wide that they will
drive all before them, and cut nothing • and
if thefe furrofvs be deep they will drive out the
meal as foonas it gets into them, and thereby
imake much coarle meal, fuch as middlino-s and
llhip-fluff or carnell ; the twelve quarter drefs
!appcars to be better :but the ihort furrows at 7°""/"^''
|G have about four times as much draught as makts imich
jrhe long ones, the advantage of v/hich I can- '^'^-''^'^ '"^'^ •
|not yet fee, becaufe if we have once found the
[draught that is right for oae furrow, fo as to
Icaufe the meal to pafs through the (tone in a
iproper time, it apppears reaionable that the
Idraught of every other furrow fhould be equal
|to it.

l/^ji^ ©RAXIGHr OF THE MlLL^STOi-JiE^. Chap. I.'

Art. loj. In the central drefs E A the furrows have all

one draught, and if we could once determine
how much is necelTaiy exadlly, then we might
expe6b to be right, and I prefume we will find
it to be in a certain proportion to the fize and
velocity of thefton-e ; becaufe, the centrifugal
force that the circular motioii of the ftonej
gives the meal, has a tendency to move it out-j
ward, and this force will be in inverfe propor-
tion to the diameter of the ftones, their veloci-i
ties being the fame by the 4th law of circulari
motion. E e is a furrow of tlie running ftone,:
and we may fee by the figure, that the fur-
rows crofs one another at the centre in a much
greater angle than near the periphery, which
I conceive to be right, becaufe the centrifugal
force is much iefs nearer the centre than the
periphery. But we muft alfo confider, that
the grain, whole or but little broken, requires
Iefs draught and central force to fend it out,
than it does when ground fine ; which fliews,
that we muft here differ in pra^lice from the
theories laid down in art. 13, founded on thei
laws of circular motion and central forces ; be-
caufe, the grain as it is ground into meal, is Iefs|
effedled by the central force to drive it out,
therefore the angles with v/hich the furrows
crofs each other muft be greater near the verge
or fkirt of the ftone, and Iefs near its centre
thanaifignedby theory, and this variation from
theory can be formed only by conjedlure, and
afcertained by pradice.

From the whole of my fpeculations on this
difficult fubjecl, added to my obfervations onj
my own and others pra«5lice and experience,:
-I attem.pt to form the following rule for laying
out a 5 foot mill-iioDe. See fi^- i. Fl. KI. ,

y;a^,^ I. Draught of the Mill-Stones. J45

I Defcribe a circJe with 3 iiKtlies, and another Art. loj.

with 6 inches radius, round the centre of the

ftone.
: Divide the 3 inch fpace hetween thefe two

circles, into 4 fpaces, by 3 circles equi-dif-

tant,cafl thefe 5 circles, draught circles.
; Divide the ftone into 5 parts, hf defcribing

4 circles equi-diftant between the eye and

verge.
[. Divide the circumference of the ftone into

18 equal parts, called quarters.
; Then take a ftraight edged rule, lay one end

at one of the quarters at 6, at the verge of

the ftone, and the other end at tlie outfide
lldoraught ci^rck, 6 inches from the centre of

the ftone, and draw a line for the furrow
i from the verge of the ftone to the circle 5.
! Xhen ihift the rule from drauglit circle 6,

to the draught circle 5, and continue the
I furrow line towards the centra, from circle
i 5 to 4 : then fhift in the rule to draught
; circle 4, and continue to 3 ; Ihift to 3 and ,

; continue to 2 ; fhift to 2 and continue to i,
1 and the curve of the furrow is formed, as
j I — 6 in the figure.

! To this curve fornj a pattern to lay out all
I the reft by.

The furrows with this curve wall crofs each
ither with the following angles, ftiewn fig. I,
,1 circle i, which is the eye

of the ft'one at 75 degrees angle.
— 2 — — 45 .

3 — —- 35

4 -— — 31

5 — — 27

6 — — -2^

146 Draught of MiLL-StoNEsi C^af. ti\

Art. 10^'. Thefe angles, I think, will do well in prac-'

tice, will grind fmooth, and make but little

coarfe meal, <Scc. as fhewn by the lines Gr,i

Hr, Gs, H s, &c^&c. . ' \

Suppofmg the greateft draught circle to be;

6 inches radius, then by theory the anglesi

would have been _ ,

at circle I — • -.;— 138 degrees angle.!

— 2 - — — 69

3 - ''

- 46

34>5

27,5

6 —

If the draught circle had been 5 inches radi-j
tas, and the furrows ftraight, the angles would
then have been at

circle degrees.;

'-j :ji^>.;i

.•^ ^f: .[■'i :iffT>r;Ji'ib' fh-^

about 180

And 6 inches frbm centre, as
iliewn by lines G i , H i .

, — no

• 2

: (,0

- 38

23;

The angles near the centre here, are quit(
too great to grind, they will pulh the graii
before them ; therefore, to remedy all thefi'
difadvantages, take the aforefaid rule, whicl
forms the furrows, as fhewn at 6 — 7, fig. i
which is 4 of 18 qrs. H 8 reprefents a furrow
the runner, fhewing the angles where the)'
crofs thofe of the bed-jftone, in every parti
Here I have fuppofed the extrem-es of th(!
draught to be 6 inches for the verge, and ^
inches for the eye of the ftone, to be right fo;

'Chap, I. DraucJht of Mi ll-Stones^ 147

a (lone 5 feet diameter, revolving 100 times in ^rt. 105.
a minute ; but of this we cannot be certain.
Yet by experience and practice the extreams
iriay be afcertained in time for all fizes of Hones,
with different velocities, no kind of drefs that
I can conceive, appearing to me likely to be
brought to a truth except this, and it certain-
ly appears both by inlpecling the figure, and
reaion, that it will grind the fmootheil: of all
i the different kinds exhibited in the plate.
I * The principle of grinding is partly that of
I ihears clipping. The plains of the face of the
: ftones ferving as guides to keep the grain, &c.
j in the edge of the fhears, tlie furrows and
! pores, forming the edges ; if the Ihears crofs one
another too fhort, they cannot cut ; this Ihews
\ that all flrokes of the pick fhould be parallel to

the furrows.
! To o-ive two ftones of diifererif; diameters
1 the fame draught, we muft make their drauo;ht
! circles in direct proportion to their diameters ;
1 then the furrows of the upper and lower ftones
' of each fize, will crofs each other with equal
i angles in all proportional diftanres, from their
I centres, to their periphery: See art. 13. But
when we come to confider that the mean cir-
i ciesofallitones are to have nearlv equal veloci- , „ „
j ties, and that their central lorces will be in in- n^ouid have
I verfe proportion to the diameters ; we muft proVrtwn'^"^
I confider, thatfmall ftones muft have much lefs '^''='" ^^'^e*

' ones.

draun^ht, than large ones, in proportion to their
diameters. See the proportion for determin-
ing the draught, art. 13.

It is very necelTary that the true draught of
the furrows, fhould be determined to fuit the

148 Draught of tee Mill-Stones. Chap, /.

Art 105. velocity of the ftone ; becaufe the centrifugal
force of the meal will vary, as the fquares of
the velocity of the ftone, by the 5th law of cir-
cular motion. But the error of the draught
may be corredecl, in fome meafure, by the
depth of the furrows. The lefs the draught,
the deeper the furrow ; and the greater the
draught, the fnaliower muft the furrow be to
prevent the meal from efcaping unground. But
if the furrows be too ftiallow, there will not a
fufficient quantity of air pafs through the ftones
to keep them cool. But in the central drefs
the furrows meet fo near together that they cut

Qnarter drefs ^^^ ftouc too much away at the centre, unlefs

with many •' '

quarters to be tlicy are made too narrow ; therefore, I pre-
pre cr. . ^^^ what is called the quarter drefs ; but divi-
ded into fo many quarters, that there will be
little difference between the draught of the
furrows ; fuppofe about iB quarters in a 5 foot
ftone ', then each quarter takes up about 10
1-2 inches of the circumference of the ftone;
which fuits to be divided into about 4 furrows
and 4 lands, if the ftone be clofe ; but if it be
open, 2 or 3 furrows to each quarter will be
enough. This rule will give 4 feet 6 inch
ftones, 16 ; and 5 feet 6 inch ftones, 21 ; aati..
6 feet ftones, 23 quarters. But the number
of quarters is not fo particular, but better more
than lefs. If the quarters be few, the difad-
vantage of the ftiort furrows crofting at too
great an angle, and throwing out tlie meal too
coarfe, may be remedied ; by making the land
wideft next the verge, thereby turning the
furrows towards the centre, when they will
have lefs draught, as in the quarter H I, fig. 3.

*^% «^>^ t.^-, c^>^ <^>i 1^1 1^^^ tc?^ *-^^ t<^ v^^ i<?^ <^?^ t^>> t^-) t^j^ t^5-> tt?-. '<S>'.

CHAPTER II.

Directions for facing a pair of new
bur stones, laying out the fur-
rows, ranging them for grinding,
and for keeping them in good face ;
picking and sharpening them ; for

GRINDI G TO THE rIGKT FINENESS, SO
AS TO CLEAN THE BRAN WELL, AND MAKE
BUT LITTLE MIDDLINGS, &C.

^^y

effacing Mill-Stones. Art. io6.

THE bur mill-itones are generally left in wswftr'
fuch face by the maker, that the miller ^^^^ ^ picks.
needs not fpend much labour and time on
them with picks, before he may hang, and
grind water or dry fand, with them, becaufe
he can make much better fpeed by this me-
thod. After they have ground a quantity,
that may be judged fufficient, they mult be
taken up, and the red ftaff tried over their
faces,* and if it touches in circles, the red
parts fhould be well cracked with picks, then

• The red ftaff is longer than the diameter of the ftones, aKd three inches
thick on the edge, which is made perfec!:\iy ftraight, on which is rubbed red
clay, mixed with water ; which fhews the higheft parts of the faces of the
ftones, when rubbed oyerthejii, by leaving the red onthofe high parts.

I50

Of Facing Mill-Stones.

Chap. Il\

Alt ic6.

put them to grind a fmall quantity of water or.
fand again ; after this take them up, and try
the ftaff on them, picking off the red parts
as before, and repeat this operation, until the
ftaff will touch nearly alike all the way acrcfs,
and until the ftone comes to a face in every
part, that the quality thereof may plainly ap-
pear : then, with a red or black line proceed
to lay out the furrows, in the manner deter^;
mined upon, from the obfervations already
laid down in chap. I, But here we muft ob^
Se furrow?,'' fcrvc that the edgcs does the grinding, and that
the quantity ground will be in proportion to
the number of edges that are to do it. Af-
ter having a fair view of the face and quality
of the ftone, we can judcre of the number of
furrows m oft fuitable, obierving, that where
the ftone is moft open and porous, few fur-
rows will be wanted ; but where it is clofe and
fmooth, the furrows ought to be more numc-
roui, and both they and the lands narrow,
(about I &i-8of an inch wide) that they may
xOTiTi the more edges, to perform the grind-
ing. The furrpws, at the back, ihould be
inade nearly the depth of the thicknefs of a
grain of wheat, but fioped up to a feather
edge, not deeper than the thicknefs of a fn-

to fuit the
quality of the
ftone

r^cp^h of the
furrows.

ger-iiaii ;

this edire is to be made

* For the form of the bottom of the furrow, fee plate XI, fig. j. The
«arve ]i?ie e b ihews the bottom, b the feather edge, and e the back part.
It the bottom had been made fquare at the back as at e, the grain would lay
in the corner,?ind by the centrifugal force,wou]d work out along the furrows
■without paJTing over the lands, and part would efcape nnground. The back
edge muft be (loped for two reafons : i ft, that the meal may be pulhed on to
tne feather edge : 2nd, tliat the furrow may grow narrower, as the face of
tiie ftones wears away, to give liberty to Iharpen the feather edge, without
making tha furrows too wide. Fjg. 5 reprefents the face of two ftones,
>vorking together, the runner moving from a to d. When the fxirrows arc
right over one another as at a, there is room for a grain of wheat ; whea
they move to the portion of b, it is flattened, and at c, is clipped in two hj
tiie fcath^r edges, and tlie la.nd3 or plains opcriirce on it as at ci.

Zkap. II, Of Facing Mill-Stones. 151

IS poflible, which cannot be done without a Art. 10^.
/ery liiarp, hard pick. When the furrows
ire all made, try the red llaiF over them, and ,

,. . , , , , Of opening

t it touches near the centre, the marks mull the fiones

3e quite taken off about a foot next to it, but J^^^J^"^ *''^ "'*»'

)bferving to crack lighter the farther from it,

b that when the ftones are laid together, they

A^ill not touch at the centre, by about one twen-

ieth part of an inch, and clofe gradually, fo

IS to touch and fit exadily, for about 10 or 12

nches from the verge. If the ftones be now stones mthe

veil hung, having the facing and furrowing °''^^^*

leatly done, they will be found in the moft

excellent order for grinding wheat, that they

:an poiTibly be put in, becaufe they are in good

'ace, fitting fo neatly together, that the wheat

:annot efcape unground, and all the edges

)eing at their fliarpeft, fo that the grain can

)e ground into flour, with the leaft prellure

;)ofrible.

— ^.<^>^^> —

Of banging Mill-Slorics. Art . 107.

j IF the Hone have a balance-rvne it is an o/'^^"g'"s

I P \ • r 1 ^''^ none with

•aiy matter to hang it, tor v/e have only to abaiancs-
let tiie fplndle perpendicular to the face of the ^^°^'
led-ftone ; which is done by faftening a ftaif on
[he cock-head of the fpindle, fo that the end
nay reach to the edge of the ftone, and be
iiear the face. In this end w-e put a piece
Jf a v/hale-bone or quill, fo as to touch the
tone, that, v/hen one turns the trundle-head.

152 Of Hanging Mill-Stones. Chap. IT,

Art. 107, the quill will move round the edge of thei
ftone, and when it is made to touch alike al!
the way round, by altering the wedges of thel
bridge : the ftone may be laid down and ii
will be ready hung : * but if we have a ftifF-
ryne, it will be much more difficult, becauft
we have not only to fix the fpindle perpendi-;
cular to the face of the bed-ftone, but wti
muft fet the face of the runner perpendiculaii
to the fpindle, and all this muft be done to the!

stiffryne. grcatcfl cxaftncfs, becaufe the ryne bein^l

ftiif, will not give way to fufFer the runneni

to form itfeif to the bed-ftone, as will the bai

lance-ryne. i

The bed of the ryne being; firft carefulh!

DiretStions for - , , "^ . " . 1 • 1 I

tanging a cleaued out, the ryne is put into it and tiedj
ftiff^ryne!'^ uutil thc ftonc is laid down on the cock-head :|
then we find the part that hangs loweft, andj
by putting the hand thereon, we prefs thri
ftone down a little, turning it about at th<|
fame time, and obferving, whether that low-i

of balancinp- * ^^^ '^'^^^ ^^® muft obferve, whether the ftone be of a true balance, as if
t'le ftons haugs on the cock head, and if not, it muft be truly balanced, by runnin]

lead into the lighte ft fide. This ought to be carefully attended tobythj
maker, becaufe the ftone may be made to balance truly -when at reft ; ye|
if every oppofite part does not balance each other truly, the ftone may bj
greatly out of balance when in motion, although truly balanced at reft!
and this is the reafon why the bufli of fome ftones cannot be kept tight but
few hours, while others will keep tight feveral months, the fjpindles bein
good, and ftones balanced when at reft. The reafon why a ftone that is bii
lanced at reft, will fometinies not be balanced in motion, is, that if the ujj
per fide be heavieft on one fide, and the loweft fide be heavieft on the othfi
fide of the centre, the ftone n:;ay balai.c^ at reft, yet, whea fet in motiorj
the heavieft parts draw outwards more by the centrifugal force, which wi i
put the ftone out of balance while in motion : and this argues in favour < j
a ftiff ryne. The beft method that I have heard offer hanging ftones wit
ftiif horned rynes, appears to be as follows : Fix a fcrew to each horn 1
regulate by, which is done thus — after the hoins are beded, fink under eac
horn aftrong bur, through which the fcrew is to pafs from the back olt!
ftone, and faften them in with lead ; then, after the ftone is laid down, put
the fcrews from the top of the ftone, fci-ev/ing them till the points bear tig
on the horn : then proceed to hang the ftone, which is very eafUy done, 1
torning the fcrews.

Zhap, //. Of Hanging Mill-Stones. ir^

ift part touches the bed-ftone equally all the ^^t. 107.
kvay round ; if it does not, it is adjufled by
iltering the wedges of the bridge-tree, un-
;il it touches equally, and then the fpindle will
land perpendicular to the face of the bed-
lone. Then, to fet the face of the runner
)erpendicular or fquare to the fpindle, we
land in one place, turning the ftone, and
jrelfing on it at every horn of the ryne, as it
)afles, and obferving whether the runner will
ouch the bed-ftone equally, at every horn,
vhich, if it does not, we ftrike with an iron
)ar on the horn, that bears the ftone higheft,
vhich, by its jaring, will fettle itfelf better
nto its bed, and thereby let the ftone down
:i little in that part ; but if this be not fuffici-
fnt there muft be paper put on the top of
|he horn, that lets the ftone too low ; obferv-
iig to mark the high horns, that when the
;one is taken up, a little may be taken off
If the bed, and the ryne will foon become
) neatly beded, that the ftone will hang
ery eafily. But I have ever found the bridge
|) be a little out of place, or in other words,
le fpindle moved a little from its true per-
lendicular pofition, with refpecSl to the face of
;ie bed-ftone, at every time the ftone is taken
b ; which \?. a great objedionto the ftiff horn
fne ; for if tlie fpindle be but very nttle out
<| place, the ftones cannot come together e-
<|jally ; v/hereas, if it be confiderably out of
Ijace with a balance ryne, it will be little or
ip injury to the grinding, becaufe the running
ll^ne has liberty toforni itfelf to the bed-ftone.

154 Of Regulating THE Feed, &c. Chap. II.

Art. loS* Of regulating the Feed and Water in

Grinding*

Dire aions for ^^^ ftonc being well hung, proceed to
i-eguiating the grind, and when all thing's are ready, drawl

gnjiduig. o t> X r m ' !

as much water as is judged to be iulncient ;i!
then obferve the motion of the (lone, by thei
noife of the damfel, and feel the meal ; and ii|
it be too coarfe, and the motion too flow, give!
lefsfeed, and Ihe will o;rind finer, and the mo-i
* tion will be quicker ; if it grind too coarfe yetj
lower the ftone, then if the motion be too llowi
draw a little more water ; but if the meal feei!
to be too low groundj and the motion right,
raife the ftone a little, and give a little more;
feedi If the motion and feed be too greatJ
and the meal be ground too low, fnut off parti
of the water* '

But if the motion be too flow, and feed be
too fmall, draw more water.

To regulate the grinding to fuit the quanti i
ty of water, the following rule is fet in vcrfe
that it may be more eafily remembered.*

RULE.
If the motion be too great,

Then add a little feed and weight
But if the motion be too flow.

Lefs feed and weip^ht will let her %o.

But here the miller mull remember, thai
there is a certain portion of feed that the flonej

* The miller fhoiild by many experiment's, find the quantity of water th i
beft fuits his mill, and have a mark made on the ftaff by which he d^a^t's t'^
gate, tTiat he may draw a fuitable quantity at once. {

Chap. II. Of Regulating the Feed, &c. 155

will bear and grind it well ; which will be in pro- p^^^_ j^g
portion to the fize, velocity and fliarpnefs of
them, and if this be exceeded, there will be
a lofs by not having the grinding well done.
But no rule can be laid down, to afcertain this
portion of feed ; it muft be attained by prac-
:ice : * as muft alfo the art of judging of the
'ight finenefs. I may, however, lay down fuch
'ules and direftions as may be of fome affift •
ance to the young beginner.

•t<S>=<~>0'^>-'

Rules for judging of good Grindhig'. Art. 109.

CATCH your hand full of the meal as it falls pireftions for
,Tom the ftones, and feel it lightly between jrri,Siag°bJ ^
rouv fingers and thumb ; and if it feels fmooth fteimgtiie
jmd not oily or clammy, and will not ftick much
:o the hand, it Ihevv^s it to be fine enough,
md the flones to be (harp. If there be no
umps to be felt larger than the reft, but all of
pne finenefs, it fhews the ftones to be w^ell
faced, and the furrows to have not too much
jlraught, as none has efcaped unground.
I But if the meal feels very fmooth and oily*
md fticks much to the hand, it fliews it to be
joolow ground, hard prefied and the Itones dull.
! But if it feels part oily, and part coarfe and
iumpy, and will ftick liiuch to the hand, it

1* if the ftones be over-fed, it is not poffible that the bran fiiould be well
leaned, becaufe the ftiarp edges on the face of the ftone, that is made ior
|ie purpofe of (craping the bran clean, is kept from it by the quantity of

ileal that is between the- ftones.

! X

156 Judging of good Grinding. Chap. II.

Art. 109. fliewsthat the ftones has too much feed ; or,;
that they are dull, and badly faced, or have
fome furrows that has too much draught ; or
are too deep, or perhaps too ileep at the back
£4g^> ^s part has efcaped unground, and part
too much preffed and low.

Catch your hand full, and holding the palm!
up, fhut it briikly, if the greatell quantity |
of the meal fly out and efcape between youri
tingers, it fliews it to be in a iine and lively ^
ilate, the ftones iharp, the bran thin, and v;ill;
bolt well : But the greater the quantity that.
days in the hand, the more it iliews the reverfe. |

Catch a hand full of meal in a fieve, and fift'j
the meal clean out of the bran ; then feel it,|
and if it feels foft and fprioging, or elaftic, and
alfo feels thin, with but little fticking to the'
infide of the bran, and no pieces found much:
thicker than the reft, will fhew the ftones to
be iharp, and the grinding well done.*

But if it is broad and ftiff, and the infide;
white, it is a fure fign that the ftones are dull
or overfed. If you find fome parts that are,
much thicker and harder than the reft, fuch as'
almoft half or quarter grains, it fliews that;
there are fome furrows that have too much'
draught, or are too deep or fteep, at the back
edge ; elfe, that you are grinding with lefs feed;
than the depth of the furrows, and velocity of
the ftone will bear.

* Inftead of a fieve, you may take a ftiovel and hold the point near the
ftream of meal, and it wiJI catch part of the bran, with but little meal mix-
■' ed with it ; which may be feparated by tofling it from one hand to the othsr,
^'npmg the hand at each tofs^

Chap, II. Of Dressing Stones, Scq. 157

Of D/e[j[ing and Sharpening the Stones Tf/faArt.iio.

Dull.

WHEN the ftones get dull they niuPc be ta- Direftionsfor
ken up, that they may be Iharpened ; to do this fSoneslkh
in the belt manner, we mufl be provided with picks.
fliarphard picks, with which the feather edge
of the furrov/s are to be drelled as fliarp as poi-
fible ; which cannot be done Vvath foft or dull
picks. The bottoms of the furrows are like-
wife to be drelied, to keep them of the pro-
per depth ; but here the dull picks may be fo^ keeping
ufed.* The flraight ilaff mull now alfo be face.
Irun over the face carefully, and if there be any
parts harder or higher than the rell, the red
[will be left on them ; which muft be cracked
tlightly, with many cracks, to make them wear
las fait as the fofter parts, in order to keep the
face good. Thefe cracks do alfo form edges
jthat help to clean the bran ; and the harder and
iclofer the ftcne, the more numerous are they
to be. They are to be made with a ve-
ry fharp pick, parallel to the furrows ; and the
idaraper the grain, the more the flone is to be
cracked, and the drier and liarder,the fmoother
iinuft the face be. The (lone v/ill never be in the
beft order for cleaning the bran, without iiril
j^rinding a little fand, to fnarpen all the little
edges formed by the pores of the ftone : the
lame fand may be ufed fjvcral times. Tlie
pones m^ay be fharpened Vvithout being taken
pp, or even (lopped, viz, take a half a pint of

1 t To prevent the fieel from flriking your finger^, take apiece of leather r^.^ onarfl tlie
bout 5 by 6 inches fquare, make a hole through the middle, and put the <;, ^ froii
andle ol the pick through it, keeping it betv.eea your hands and tlie pick, '/ '^ fl-pel
, raking a loop in the lower edge, through which put one of your fingers,
J keep up the lower part from the ftone.

158 Proper Degree OF FiNENEss.FOR Flour. Chap,IL\

Alt. no. {and, and hold the flioe from knocking, to let i
them run empty ; then pour in the fand, an^ '••
this will take the glaze oit of the face, and ;
whet up the edges lb that they will grind con- I
fto°ifswkhout fiderably better : this ought to be often done.* '
itoppingthem. Somc are in the practice of letting ftones '
run for months, without being dreffed ; but ij
am well convinced that, thofe who drefs them |
well twice a week, are well paid for their i
trouble. !

— ,.4,^,c&jf.<^^..

Art. II I.

Of the Moft p'-opsr Degree af Finenefs for
Flour.

Of the moft AS to the moft proper degree of finenefs for
neft of flour. Aour, millcrs diifer in their opinion ; but a great,
majority, and many of the longeft experience,;
and beil judgment, agree in this ; that, if thei
iiour be made very fine, it will be killed ; (as'
it is termed) fo that it will not raife, or fer-
ment fo well in baking ; but I have heard fe-|
yeral millers of good judgment, give it as their
opinion, that flour cannot be made too fine, ii.
ground with (liarp clean ftones ; provided tbeyi
are not funcred to rub againfc each other : and)

* But care fhould be taken to prevent the fand from getting mixed witbj
the meal : it fhouldbe catched in fome vellel, the itone being fuifered to rur.
quite empty, the fmal] quantity that will remain in the ftone -^vill not in-
lurethe flour. But I do not wilh to encourage a lazy miller, to negiefttak-,
ing up the ftone. I

When iioaes are firft fet to grind, tliey incline to raife, and grind coarfeij
for a conadcrable time, the^ true reafon of which 1% difficult to ailign. Somej
attribute it to the expaniion of the metal in the fpindle : it has been fwggefl-j
ed to me, that it is the fteam, or the rarifaftion of the air, by the heat pro j
duced by the a(:tion of the ftones, which, not having a perfectly free paflagcj
to efcape, bears up a part of the -^veight of the ftone ; and thij caufe will in-:
creafe, until 1;lie ftones are he=ited to the greatefi degree.

Chap. 11. Degree OF Fineness FOR Flour. 159

fome of thofe millers do aftualiy reduce almoft Art. m.
all the iTjeal they get out of the wheat into fu-
perfine flour ; by which means they have but
two kinds, viz. fuperfine iiour, and horfe-feed,
which is what is left after the flour is made, and
is not lit to make even the coarfeil kind of
fliip-bread.

I have tryed the fojlov/ing experiment, viz. Experiment
I contrived to catch as much of the duft of flour n^^ade thereon.
that was floating about in the mill, as made a
large loaf of bread, whicli was raifed with the
fame yeafl:, and baked in the fame oven, with
other loaves, that were made out of the mofl:
lively meal ; when the loaf made of the dufl:
[of the flour was equally light, and as good, if
not better than any of the others ; it being the
imoiftefl, pleafantefl tailed, though made of
flour that felt like oil, it being fo very fine.

I therefore conclude, that it is not the de-
gree of finenefs that deflroy's the life of the
flour, but the degree of preiiure applied on it
in grinding ; and that flour may be reduced to
the greatefl degree of finenefs, without injur-
ing the quality ; provided, it be done with
(harp clean flones, and little preffure.'^'

* It might be difficult to affign the true reafon why prefTure or heat has .j., ,,pppf-
jfuch an efteft on fiour, as to delrroy that lite ©r principle, that caufes it to • ^ ",. '

jierment and raife in the Lakins; — But we may form a iew conieftures. .^, n.' 1 u'

I r\ i»/r ,.,.., -^ , . ,. , ■' ^ , • mult not be

' vjuery, May not this life be tnat vegetative quality tnat caufes the gram jgij-^oved

to grow, feeing it is a faft l:nown by experience, that if the grain be da- * ■

iiiaged, either by wet orheatinjj; in aheap fo as to dellroy its vegetation, that

the flour that is made thereof will not bake veil? And I prefume, that if

igraiubs heated by an-- means, fo as to deitroy its vegetative quality, it will

jnotmake flour that will have an eafy fermentation ; and it is probable, that

(this degree of heat is generated by the a-.Pc of grinding when great prcifure

jis applied, which cannot be avoided if the ilones be dull.

j_ But again. If weeonfider that moil bodies are in part cornpofed of air,wi;ich

jis in a folid and fixed itate, and confVitutes a proportional part of their

iwei.Tht, and this proportion is diiierent in diiferent fpecies of matter, from

ji-i6 to 1-2, and in one fpecies of wheat has been found, hy experiments, to

|be 1-5 ot its whole weight; that is, ralli. of fixed air in 6D'b. or one buihel

jaf wheat. Now this air is roufed inte a':T:ion tv/o ways, viz. by fermentati-

t<5>-> t<?o t-S?% t-iP^ t<:5-> <-<?-> '>?-> f^^y-i ^si>i V£>> '-ei*^ <^£5^ V5'-"< '<:5>i <-<?-> <<?>-. t<i,% t.,i>-, <<pi

CHAPTER III.

OF GARLIC, WITH DIRECTIONS FOR GRINDING WHEAT .i

Art. 112. MIXED THEREWITH; AND FOR' DRESSING THE STONES .

SUITABLE THERETO.

I
. 1

IN many parts of America there is a fpecies i
of onioii called garlic, that grows fpontane- '
oufly with the wheat. It bears a head refeni- i
bling a feed onion, which contains a number of i
graias about the fize of a grain of wheat, near^ -
ly as heavy, but fbmewhat lighter*. It is ofa.|

on and by heat, and as fail as it is roufed, it inftantly leaves the body, and I

expands it!e If into about a million times more fpace than it filled before, j

in the form of a denfe body. See Martin's Fhilofophy. New cyder contains j

a large portion of this fixed air, which flys off by fermentation, leaving tlie j.

caik confiderably emptied ; and as foon as the fixed air is all gone, the fer- |

ineatation ceafes. j

Ouery, Is not t.his fixed air the very foul of vegetation and fermentation,

and may not the degree of heat generated by grinding with great pre.fure, j

fet it in motion and caufe it to leave the flour, thereby not only deilroying ,

its life, but greatly lelTeningits weight, to the great lofs of the miller; who, .'

although ne expects by hard fqneezing to reap profit, reaps lofs? As a con- j

firmation of this hypothefis, we may obferve, that many experiments have I

been made, by v/eighmg a quantity of wheat carefully, before it was ground, '

and then weighing every thing tliat it made in manufacturing, and 'ue have I
foui;d it to be lacking in v/elght fiom i to 51b. per buTnel ; v, liich could not

be accounted for any v/ay better, than fupponng the lois to be occaficnedby i
the efcape of the fixed air. Therefore, I conclude, that ftoiies ought to

revolve iJow and be kept fnarp; and'the larger tiiey are,the ilower will they ;

require to go, and the lighter may they prefs the grain, and yet grinda fuf- j
ficient quantity, and make the belt fiour.

* The complete feparation of this garlic from the wheat, is fo difficult,

Of fcparating that it has hitherto baffled all our art. Thofe grains that are larger, and

it irom the ttiofe that are iinaller, can be feparated by fcreen^- ; and thofe that are much

wheat. lighter, may be blown out by fans : but thofe that are of the fame f.ie, and

nearly of the fame weight, cannot be feparated without putting the wheat in

water, where the wheat willunk, and the garlic fwim. But this method is

too tedious for the miller to praclifb, except it be once a year, to cleon up the

hcadmgs, or the like, rather than ioofe the wheat that is mixjd v/iih tlie

Chap, III. Of Garlic, &;c. ' i6i

glutinous fubftance, which very foon adheres Art. 112.
to the ftone (in grinding) in fuch a manner, as
to blunt the edges, that they will not grind to
any degree of perfeftion. Therefore, as often
as the ilones become dull, we are oblisicd to
take the runner up, and wafli the glaze off
with water, fcrubbing the faces with ftiff brulli-
es, and drying up the water with cloths or
fponges ; this laborious operation mull: be
repeated twice, or perhaps four times, in 24
hours; if there be about 10 grains of garlic
in a handful of wheat.

To put the flones in the bed order to grind
garlicky wheat, they muft be cracked roughly
all over the face ; and dreffed more open about
the eye, that they may not break the grains
of garlic too fuddenly, but gradually giving
the glutinous fubftance of the garlic more
Itime to incorporate itfelf with the meal, that ,,^ , „,

!. \. X n -ri 1 Ofdrefling

It may not adhere to the itone. 1 he rougher ftones to fuit

|the face, the longer will the fbones grind, be- '^^'^sariic.

baufe the longer w^ill the garlic be in filling all

j:he edges.

i The beft method that I have yet difcover- P^^'?^'"^"

1 ^ •' thod 01 mana-

ed for manufafturinp; garlicky wheat, is as gu^g garlicky

I'' ,, . ^ ^ ^ wheat.

iiOllOWS, VIZ.

j Firft, clean it over feveral times, in order
|:o take out all the garlic that can be got out
|)y the machinery, (which is eahly done if you
jiave a wheat elevator well fixed, as direded
jn art. 94. pi. IX.) then chop or half grind it,
i>vhich will break the g-arlic, fit beino; fofter
jhan the wheat) the moifture of vvhich, will fa
i .

larhc, which cannot be othenvife fufRciently feparated. Great care fliould
|e taken by the farmers to prevent this troublefome thing from getting root
ji their farms, which, if it does, it will be almoft impoffible ever to root it
]ut again •, becaufe it propagates by both feed and root, and is very hardy.

1^2 Op Garlic, Sz'c. Chap. III. \

Art. 112. difFufe itfelf through the chopt wheat, that it

will not injure the ftones fo much, in the fecond '

Sv,eat°toTry grinding. By this means a eonfiderable quan- '\

thegarUc. iny can be ground, without taking up the i

ftones. The chopping may be done at the rate i

of 15 or 20 buihels in an hour ; and with but i

little trouble or lofs of time ; provided there be |

a meal-elevator that will lioift it up to the meal- i

loft, from whence it may defcend to the hop- j

per by fpouts, to be ground a fecond time, when J

it will grind fofter than if it had not been chop- i

ed. Great care fliould be taken, that it be j

Mufcnotbe uot chopped fo fine that it will not feed by the j

chopped too i^nQcking of the fhoe ; (vv^hich would m.ake it \

very troublefome) as likewife, that it be not \

too coarfe, left the garlic be not fufFiciently :

broken. If the chopt grain could lay a con-i

iiderable time, that the garlic may dry, iti)

would grind much better. ]

I
But although every precaution be taken, ]

if there be much garlic in the wheat, the bran ]

will not be well cleaned ; befides, there will i

be much coarfe meal made : fuch as middlings j

and ftuif ; which will require to be ground '

over again, in order to make the moft profit 1

of the grain : this T fliall treat of in the next i

chapter.* i

* Timothy Kirk of York-Town (Pennfylvania) has communicated tome
an invention of his, an improved fan, for cleaning wheat, the principle of j
which, is, to blow the grain twice with one blaft of wind ; which, with feme
further improvements, appears to offer fair to effeft a complete reparation
of the garlic from the wheat^ and every other fubftance that is lighter than
the grain.

Le?'"' <<5>^ <<?^» <-<5^ <<?>^ <-<:5^ <<?^ t<£^ '^S?^ «<?^ '<5^

CHAPTER' IV.

■«s>'Qf>'^>"

OF GRINDING OVER THE MIDDLINGS, STUPT & BRAN, a ,,4- , , ^
OR SHORTS, IF NECESSARY; TO MAKE THE MOST ' ^ *0'

OF THEM.

ALTHOUGH we grind the grain in the beft
manner we poflibly can, fo as to make a-
ny reafonable difpatch ; yet there will appear
in the bolting, a fpecies of coarfe meal, called
middlings ; and ftuff, a quality between fuper-
fine and fhorts ; which will contain a por-
tion of the beft part of the grain : but in
this coarfe ftate they will make very coarfe
bread ; confequently, will command but a low
price. For which reafon it is oftentimes more
profitable to the miller to grind and bolt fuch
;0ver again, and make them into fuperfine flour,
and fine middlings ; this may eafiiy be dene by
jproper management.

The middiincrs is crenerally hoifted by tubs, ^^fpy^paring
land laid m a convenient place on the lioor, m be ground
che meal-loft, near the hopper-boy, until there
is a large quantity gathered : when the firil
^ood opportunity offers it is bolted over, Vvith-
|)ut any bran or (liorts, mixed with it ; in order
.0 take oul all that is already fine enough ;
jvvhich will pafs through the fuperfine cloth.
Ifhe middlings wall pais through the middhngs'
Hoth, and will then be round and lively, and in
1 Y

164 Of Grinding Middlings, &c. Chap. IF.

Art. 113. 3- ftate nt for grinding ; being freed from the
fine part that vv'ouid have prevented it from
feeding freely. The iinall fpecks of bran that
were before mixed with it, being hghter than i
the rich round part, will not pais through the i
middlings' cloth, but willpafs on to the fluff's ;
cloth. The middlings will, by this means, be j
richer than before ; and when made line, may !
be mixed with the ground meal, and bolted !
into fnperfine fiour. '

The middlings may now be put into the i

mlddib^T" hanging garner, ov^er the hopper of the flones ; :!
out of v/hich it will run into the hopper, and i
keep it full, as does the wheat; provided the ,
garner be rightly conilru^ted, and a hole, a- !
bout 6 by 6 inches made for it to iiTue out at. ,
There mufl be a rod put through the bar that '
fupports the upper end of the damfel, thelov/^ ;
er end of which mufl reach into the eye of the '
ftone, near to the bottom, and on one fide i
thereof, to prevent the meal from flicking in '
the eye, which if it does it will not feed. The
hole in the bottom of the hopper mufl not be
lefs than four inches fquare. Things being
thus prepared, and the flones being fharp and i
clean, and nicely hung ; draw a fmall quanti- 1
ty of water, (for mical does not require a- j
bove one tenth part that grain does) taking |
great care to avoid preiiure, becaufe the bran
is not between the flones now to prevent their
coming too clofe together. If you lay on as
much weight, as v/hen grinding grain, the;
. fiour will be killed. But if the flones be well |
hung, and it be prefi'ed lightly, the flour;
will be lively, and will make much better |
bread, without being bolted, than it v/ould be-

Chap. IV. Of Grinding Middlings, &c. 165

fore it was ground. As faft as it is ground. Ait. 113.
it may be elevat'ed and bolted ; but a little bran
will now be rieceflary to keep the clotli open ;
and ail that paiTes through the faperfine cloth
in thi3 operation, may be mixed with what paf-
fed throuo'h in the firft bolthio; of the middlino-s :
and be hoifted up and mixed (by the hop-
per-boy) regularly with the ground nieaj,
and bolted into faperfine fiour ; as directed,
art.- 89. *

The iiuif, which is a degree coarfer than of belting and

crindinp" over

middlings, if it be too poor for iliip bread, and fliip-fiuff, £;c.
too rich to feed cattle on, is to be ground over,
in the fame manner as the middlinp-s. But if

it be mixed with fine flour, (as it fometimes
'^s) fo that it will not feed freely, it mufl:
3e bolted over firil, this will take out the
^ine flour ; and alio the line fpecks of bran,
kvhich being ligliteft, will come through the
:loth laft. When it is bolted, the part that
Daifes through the middiii,igs' and ilufPs parts
)f the cloth, are to be mixed and ground to-
i^ether ; by which means, the rich particles will
)e reduced to Hour ; and when boiled, v/ill pafs
through the finer ciorhs, and will make tole-
'able good bread. What paiTes through the
middlings' cloth , will m ake but indilferent Ihip-
i)re:id, and whatpaiies through the Ihip-iiuif's
doth will be what is called brovv'n-iluft, rous-
'ngs, or hiorfe-reed.

1 * But all thl-. trouble and lo!s of tiriic may be faved by a little llmple ma-
:liinery of late invention, tiiat will coit but a few dollars, viz. Asthemid-
[lings i'llls by the firft bolting, let them be conveyed into the eye cf the ftone,
^A ground with the v.^heat, r.3 dirs'ftc.l n.rt. 89, plate 8 : by which means, the
ihole thereof may be matic intofiiperfine flctir, without any lofs of ti-ne or
janger, of being too hard prefied f.)r ^vait of tlie bran to keep the ftones a-
jart. This mode I firlh inti-oduced; zvA ftvera! others has i'.nce adopted it
I'ith approbation.

1 66 QiTALiTY OF AIill-Stones, Sec. Chap. V,

Art. 113. The bran and Ihorts feldom are worth the

ihtm^orTraH troublc of grinding over, uniefs the ftones have
over. been very dull ; or the grinding been but (light-

ly performed ; or the wheat very garlic-
ky. For this purpofe, the ftones are to be ve- \
ry Iharp ; and more water and preirure is here'
required, than in grinding grain. The flour j
that is made thereof, is generally of an indif-j
ferent quality, being made of that part of the 'i
• grain that Mes next the Ikin, and great .parti
thereof being the ikin itfelf, cut fine.* |

CHAPTER V.

— <^> —

Art. 114. Of the ^tality of Mill-Stones, to Suit the ^^alitj

of the Wheat.

or the differ- TT lias becu found by experience, that differ-
ofwheaf**^^ J. ent qualities of wheat, require diiFcreot qua-
lities of ftones, to grind it to the beft per-|
feftion. !

Although there be feveral fpecies of wheat,

of different qualities ; yet with refpect to the

' ■ ■ ' ' ''

of the cleo-ree * Sut the merchant miller is to confider, that there is a certain degree of
of pel ieftion clofenefs or perfecSion that he is to aim at, in manufafturing which will
moft poffible. yield him the maximum, or greateft profit poffibJe, in a given time-l
And this degree of care and perfection will vary v/ith the prices of wheat and,
flour, fo that what would yield the greateft profit at one time, would fink]
money at another; becaufe, if the difference of the prices of wheat and floui:
be but little, then we muft make the grain yield the moft poffble, to obtaiil
any profit. But if the price of flour be much above that of the wheat, therj
■we had beft make the greater difpatch, even if we fliould not do it fo well, ir.
order that the greater quantity may be done while thofe prices lafts : where-l
as, if v/e were to make fuch difpatch when the price of flour was but lUtJie
above that of v» heat, we would fnk money. - ' '

Chap.V. Quality OF Mill-Stones, &C. 167

orinding, we may take notice of but the three Art. u4.
following qualities, viz.

1. The dry and hard.

2. The damp and foft.

3. Wheat that is mixed with garlic. of tiie quau-
When the grain that is to be ground be dry JJ^'j^^itX^d

and hard, fuch as is raifed on high, and clay dr> wheat.
lands ; threfned in barns, and kept dry ; * the
ftones for arindino; fuch wheat, Ihould be of
that quality of the bur,that is called clofe and
hard, with few large pores ; in order that they
may have more face. The grain being brittle
and eafy broken into pieces, requires more face
or plain parts (fpoken of in art. 104.) to re-
duce it to the required finenefs.

When the grain that is to be ground is a lit-
tle damp and foft ; inch as is raifed on a light,
fandy foil ; tread out on the ground, and car-
ried in the hold of (hips to market, which tends And damp foft
to increafe the dampnefs, the ftones is required '''''^'''^'
to be iVxOTQ open, porous and (liarp ; becaufe
the grain is tough, difficult to be broke into pie-
ces, and requires more fharpnefs, and lefs face
I (or plain furface) to reduce it to the required
jfinenefs :'\ See art. 104.

j * Such wheat as is produced by the mountainous and clay lands, of th.e
(country diftant from the Tea and tide watern, is generally of a brownifti co-
[lour, the grain appearing flinty, and fometimes the infidea little tranfparent,
jwhen cut by a fharp knife. This tranfparent kind of wheat is generally
heavy, and of a thin iliin, and will make as white fiour, and as much of it,
as the whiteft grain.

I .

I t Such is the wheat that is raifed in all the low, level, and fandy lands, of
jcoantries near the fea and tide waters of America, where it is cuftomary to
jtread out their wheat on the ground by horfes, and it fometimes gets wet by
|rain and dew, and the dampnefs of the ground. This grain is naturally of
ia fairer colour, and fofter ; and v/heu broken, tlie infide is white,
|\vhich (hews it to be nearer a ftate of pulverization, and is more eiafily reduc-
jedto fiour, and ^■.'ili not bear as much preifvire as the grain that is raifed on
high and clay lands, or fuch, that v/hen broken, appear foiid and tranfparent.

i68

Quality of Mill -St ones, &c. Chap,V,

Art. n4. Wlicn there is more or lefs of the garlic, or!

wild onion, (mentioned Art. ill;) mixed with:

^hej^^^^""^^ the wheat ; the ftones will require to be open, |
porous, and fliarp : becaufe the glutinous fubr|
ftance of the garlic adheres to the face of the I
ftones, and blunts the edges; by which meansj
little can be ground,before the ftones get fo diill
that they will require to be taken up, and fiiarp-;!
ened : and the more porous and fliarp the ftones!
^re^ the longer will they nm, and the raorej
will they grind, without getting dull:* See]
Art. III. i

* It is very difficult to convey my ideas of the quality of the ftones to the!
reader, for want of fometliing to meafure or compare their degree of perofi-i
ty or clofenels, hardnefs or foftnefs with. The knowledge of thefe ditferent;]
qualities is only to be attained by praftice and experience ; but I may ob- ^
ferve,tliat there is no need of any pores in the ftone to be larger in diameter {
than the length of a grain of wheat, for whatever they are larger, is io muclii
lofs of the face, becaufe it is the edges that does the grinding ; therefore, |
all large pores in ftones are a difadvantage. The greater the number of i
pores in the ftone, (fo as to leave a fufficient quantity of touching furfacesj j
to reduce the flour to a fufficient degree effinenefs) the better. j

MUl-ftone makers ought to be acquainted with the true principles on
Oi making which grinding' is perform.ed, and with the art of manufafcuring grain
Mill-ftones. jj^^^ flour, that they may be judges of the quality of the ftones fuitabk to!
the quality of the wheat, of different parts of the csuntry; alfo, of the befti
manner of difpofmg of the different pieces of ftone, of diMerent qualities, inj
the fame mill-uone, according to the office of the feveral parts, from tli6 I
centre to the verge, of the ftone. See art. 104.

Mill-ftones are generally but very carelefsly and flightly made, v/hereas,j
they fliould be made witli the greateit care and to the greaCett nicety. The
runner muft be balanced exaftly on its centre, and every correfponuing op-(
pofite part of it fliould be of equal weight, or elfe the fpindle will not keep
tight in the bulh : (fee art. 1 07.) and if it is to be hung on a balance ryne, it
fnould be put in at the formation of the ftone, M'hich fnould be nicely ba-
lanced thereon.

But above all, the quality of the ftone faould be moft attended to, that no
piece of an unfuitable quality for the reft, be put in ; it being known to'inoft
experienced millers, that they had better give a high price for an extraordi-'
nary good pair, than to have an indifierent pair for nothing.

C H Y\ P T E R Vr.

)F BOLTING-PlEELS, and CLOTHS; WITH DIRECTI- ^rt. I i ^i
ONS FOR BOLTING AND INSPECTING THE FLOUR.

Principles of

THE efFea we wifli to produce by fifting, ''°''^^-
or bolting, is to feparate the different
[ualities of flour from each other ; and from
he Mn, fhorts, or bran. For this reafon let
lis confider the moll rational means, that we

an ufe to attain this end.

I ^cries concerning Boltings

I I . Suppofe that we try a fieve ; the malh-
's of which are fo large, as to let all the bran
nd meal through : now it is evident, that we
ould never attain to the end, propofed by the
;fe thereof.

i 2. Suppofe we try a finer fieve, that will let
ill the meal throuofh, but none of the bran :
jut by this we cannot feparate the different
iualities of flour.

I 3. We provide as many fieves of the differ-
[Pxt degrees of finenefs, as we intend to make
jiffercnt qualities of flour ; and which for dif-
!n6i:ion, we name — Superfine, Middlings, and
larnell..

lyo Of Bolting-Reels & Cloths. Chap,VL\

Art. 115. The fuperfine fieve, of mafhes, fo fine as tOi

let through the fuperfine flour, but none of the
middUngs : the niiddUng's fieve, fo fine as to
let the middlings pafs through, but none of thei
carnell : the carnell fieve, lb fine as to let none;
of the fhorts or bran pafs through.

Now it is evident, that if we would conti-|
nue the operation long enough, with each fieve,!
beginning with the fuperfine, that v/e might
effe6l a complete feparation.* But if we do
not continue the operation a fufficient length oil
time, with each fieve, the feparation will not
be complete. For part of the fuperfine will be
left, and will pafs through with the middlings,
and part of the middlings with the carnell, and
part of the carnell with the fhorts ; and this
would be a laborious and tedious work, if per-j
f orm e d by the hand. . 1

To facilitate this bufinefs, many has been the
improvements ; amongft which, the circular
fieve or bolting -reel, is one of the foremoft ;
and which was, at firft:, turned and fed by
hand ; though afterwards contrived to be turn-
ed by water.

But many have been the errors in the appli-
cation of this machine ; either by having the,
cloths too coarfe, by which means the middling.'!
and fmall pieces of bran will pafs through witli
the fuperfine flour, and part of the carnell witl

Eugllfli modi * This method I have been informed is praftifed in England : they havi|
of bolting. feveral bolting cloths of different degrees of finenefs for the fame reel. TheJ

firll put on the fine one, and pafs the meal through, which takes out the fu|
perfine flour ; they then take off the fuperfine cloth, and put on the next de'
gree of finenefs, which takes out the common fine flour ; and fo on through
the different degrees, the cloths having drawing firings at each end foj
drawing the ends clofe. !

ikap.Vh Of Bolting-Reels & CLdTKS. 171

he middlings: or by having the clotlis too Art. 115.
[ ifhort, when they are fine enough ; fo that the
loperation cannot be continued a fufficient time
ito take all the fuperfine out, before it reaches
the middlings' cloth, and all the middlings, be-
■fore it reaches the carnell cloth.
I The late improvements made on bolting,
jfeems to be v/hoUy as follows, viz.
! I. Bv ufme; liner cloths — but they were, .
jround to clog, or choke up, when put on imall mentsmadein
reels of 22 inches diameter. boitmg.

2. By enlarging the diameter of the reels
,0 27 1-2 inches, which gives the meal greater
Idiftance to fall, and caufes it to ftrike harder
Jigainft the cloth, which keeps it, open.
; 3. By lengthening the cloths, that the ope-
i-ationmay be continued a fufficient length of
time.

! 4. By bolting a greater part of the flour over
jigain, than was done formerly.
I The meal, as it is ground, muft be hoifted to
;he meal-loft, where it is fpread thin, and of-
en llirred, that it may cool and dry, to pre-
i)are it for bolting. After it is. bolted, the
ail-flour, or that part of the fuperfine that falls of boitin*
aft ; and which is too full of fpecks of bran to °'"^^'
)afs for fuperfine flour, is to be hoifted up a-
;ain, and mixed v/ith the ground meal, to be
)olted over again. This hoi fling, fpreading,
nixing, and attending the bolting hoppers, in
nerchant-mills, creates a great deal of hard
ibour, if done by hand ; and never complete-
Y done at lad : But all this, and much more
'f the labour of mills, can now de done by ma-
hinsry, moved by water: See part 3.

172 Of Inspecting Flour. Chap, Vl,\

Art. 115.

Of liifpeding Flour.

THE millei- mull by fome means attain a-
knowledge of the ilandard quality, paiTable ii;
the markets —

He holds a clean piece of board under the!
bolt, moving it from head to tail, fo as to catcli
a proportional quantity all the way, as far ai
is taken for fuperiine : then, having fmoothec
it well, by preffing an even furface on it, tc
make the fpecks and colour more plainly ap
pear ; if it be not good enough, turn a littk
iiiore of the tail to be bolted over»

If the flour appears darker than expefted
fi-om the quality of the grain, it lliews th(
grinding to bfe high, and bolting too near ; be
caufe the finer the flour, the whiter its co
lour.*

But this mode requires good light ; there
fore, the belt way, is for the miller to obfervi
to what degree of poorneis he may reduce hi
tail flour, or middlings, fo as to be fafe ; by whic]
he may judge with much more fafety in th(
night. But the quality of the tale flour, mid
dlings, &c. will greatly vary in different mills
for thofe that have the late improvements fo
bolting over the tale Hour, grinding over thii
middlings, <Scc. can make nearly all into fu
per fine.

* Thi'-, appears reafonable, wlien we confider, that marry dark colnuve
and tranfpareiit fubilances (while :n a folid ftate) when pulverized, beconi
white, and their whitenefs is propavtionate to their degree of pulverization
for inftance, fait, allura, and many kin'-li of flone, and particularly ilatc;
—Ice pulverized ic as white as liiow — trvnfparent v.heatrcakes the white
flour.

Zhap. Vll. The Miller's Duty. 173

Whereas thofe that have them not — the qua- Art- 115-
ity that remains next to fuperfme, is common,
)r fine flour ; then rich middhngs, fhip-lluff,&e.
rhofe who have experience will conceive the
litference in the profits. If the flour feel foft,
lead, and oily, yet v^^hite ; it fliews the flones
o have been dull, and too much prefTure ufed.

If it appear Uvely, yet dark coloured, and
o full of very fine fpccks ; thislliews the flones
0 have been too rough, fliarp, and that it
Vas ground and bolted too clofe.

C H A P T E Pc VII.

•<>^£'^o<S£>>

HRECTIONS FOR KEEPING THE MILL ; AND
THE BUSINESS OF IT IN GOOD ORDER.

rhs Duty of the Miller. Art. 1 1 6.

rHE mill is fuppofed to be completely finilh-
ed for merchant work, on the new plan ;
iippUed with a dock of grain, flour calks, nails,
)rafhes, picks, fhoveis, fcales, weights, &c.
vhen the millers enters on their duty

If there be two of them capable of (landing
vatch, or taking charge of the mill, the time
3 generally divided as follows : In tlie day time
hey both attend to bufmefs, but one of them
las the chief direction : 1 he night is divided
nto tv/o v/atchcs, the firiil of v/hich ends at

o'clock in the morning; when the mailer
niller fhould enter on his v/atch, and continue

174 The Miller's Duty. Chap, VII.

Art. ri6. tiil moming ; that he may be ready to dired;
other hands to their bufinefs early. The hrit
thing he fhould do, when his watch begins, is
to fee whether theftones are grinding, and the
cloths bolting well.

And 2ndly, to review all the movinj^ gudge-
ons of the mill, to fee whether any of them,
w^ant greafe, &c. that he may know what care
maybe neceflary for them during his watch ;
for want of this the gudgeons often run dry, and
heat, which brings on heavy loffes of time and
repairs; for when they heat, they get a little
ioofe, and the fcones they run on crack ; after
which they cannot be kept cool. He Ihould
alfo fee what quantity of grain is over the ftones,
and if there be not enough to fupply them tiil
morning, fet the cleaning machines in motion.

All things being fet right, his duty is very
eafy — he has only to fee the machinery, the
grinding, and bolting, once in an hour ; he has
therefore plenty of time to amufe himfelf in
reading, &c. rather than going to fleep, which
is not fafe.

Early in the morning, all the floors fliould be
fwept, and the flour duil colledred. The caf ks
nailed, weighed, marked and branded, and the
packing began, that it may be completed in the
forepart of the day ; by this means, fnould a-
ny unforefeen thing occur, there willbe fpare
time. Befides, to leave the packing till the af-
ternoon, is a lazy pra«^ice, and keeps the buii-
nefs out of order.

When the (lones are to be fharpened, every
thing neceffary fhould be prepared, before the
mill is flopped, (efpecially if there be but caie

Chap, VII, AcciDENTSBY WHICH Mills Catch Fire. 175

pair of flones to a water wheel) that as little Art. i.^,
time as poffiblc may be lofl : the picks made
right lliarp, not lefs than 12 in number. Things
being ready, take up the ftone ; fet one hand
to each, and drefs them as foon as poffible, that
they maybe fet to work again ; not forgetting
to greafe the gears, and Ipindle foot.

In the after part of the day, a fufRcient quan-
tity of grain is cleaned down, to fupply the
ftones the whole night ; becaufe it is befl to
have nothing to do in the night, more than at-:,
tend to the grinding, bolting, gudgeons, &c.

. <<55>c<*to<^>..

Peculiar Accidents by which Mills are fuhjcCl to Art. 117,
Catch Fire,

1. THERE being many moving parts in a
mill, if any piece of timber fall, and lay on a-
ny moving wheel, or fhaft, and the velocity
and preflure be great, it will generate fire, and
perhaps confume the mill.

2. Many people ule wooden candlefticks, that
may be fet on a call-:, bench, or the floor, and
forgetting them, the candle burns down, lets
the ftick, cafk, &c. on fire, which, perhaps
may not be i^cen until the mill is in a flame.

3. Carelefs millers, fometimes, ftick a can-
dle to a cafk, or poft, and forget it, until it
burns a hole in the poll:, or fets the cafe on
fire.

176 On IMPROVING OF Mill-Seats, Chap. VIL

Art. 117. 4. Great quantities of grain fometimes bend

the floor fo as to prefs the head blocks, againft
the top of the upright fhafts, and generate fire :
(ualefs the head blocks have room to rile as the
floor fettles) mill-rights Ihould conlider this,
and be careful to guard againfl: it as they
build.

5. Branding irons, carelefsiy laid down, when
hot, and left ; might fet fomething on fire.

6. i have heard of bran falling from the tail
of a bolt, round a fliaft, the friv^ion of which
burnt the fliaft off.

7. The foot of the mill-flione fpindle, and
gudgeons, frequently heat, and fet the bridge-
tree or Ihaft on fire. It is probable, that from
fuch caufes mills have taken fire, when no per-
fon could difcover how.

Art. 118.

i"t^g>t^ <^>^-- -^-

Objcrvations on improving cf Mill-Sedts,

I MAY end this Part with a few obfervati-
ons on improving mill-feats. The improving
of a mill-feat at loool. expence, is an under-
taking worthy of mature deliberation, as wroilgj
fteps may increafe it to i lool. and the improve-j
ment be incomplete : whereas, right fteps may
reduce it to 900I. and perfect them.

Strange as it may appear, yet it is a real—
f?icl, that thofe who have leaft experie^ice injiT
the miliing-bufmefs, generally build the befl:|:}
and completeft mills. — The reafons are evi-|
dent —

Ckap>VIL On nvfPKQViNG OF Mill-Seats. 177

The experienced man is bound to old fyf- Art. 118.
items ; he relies on his own judgment inlaying
all his plans : whereas.

The unexperienced man, being confcious of
his deficiency, is at liberty ; perfectly free from
all prejudice, to call on all his experienced
friends, and to collet all the improvements
that are extant.

A merchant who knows but little of the millers
art, or of the ftrudure or mechanifm of mills,
is naturally led to the following fteps, viz.

He calls fever al of the moft experienced
millers and mill-wrights, to view the feat fepa-
rately, and point out the fpot for the mill-
houfe, dam, &c. and notes their reafonings in
favour of their opinion. The fir ft perhaps
fixes on a pretty level fpot for the mill-houfe,
and a certain rock, that nature feems to have
prepared, to fupport the breaft of the dam, and
an eafy place to dig the race, mill-feat, &c.

The fecond paffes by thefe places without
noticing them ; explores the ftream to the
boundary line ; fixes on another place, the on-
ly one he thinks appointed by nature for build-
ing a lading dam, the foundation a folid rock,
that cannot be undermined by the tumbling
water ; fixing on a rugged fpot for the feat of
the houfe : aifio-ninp- for his reafons, that the
whole fall mufl be taken in, that all may be
right in a future day. He is then informed of
the opinion of the other, againft w^hich he gives
fubilantiai reafons.

The mill-wright, carpenter and mafon, that
I are to undertake the buildino-, are now called
[ iiogether, to view the feat, fix on the fpot for
! the lioufe, dam, &c. After their opinion and

178 On improving of Mill-Seats. Chap, Vlh\

Art. T 18. reafons are heard, they are informed of the;
opinion and reafons of the Others, all are
joined together, and the places are fixed onij
They are then defired to make out a com-'
plete draught of the plan for the houfe, &c*1
and to fpare no pains to plan all for the
beft ; but alter and improve on paper, till
all appear to meet right, in the fimplefl: and|
liiofl; convenient manner ; (a week may bei
thus well fpent) making out complete bills of
every piece of timber, quantity of boards, ftonej
lime, &c. Bill of iron work, number of wheels,
their diameters, number of cogs, Sec. &c. iii
the whole work. Each perfon can thenmak^
out his charge, and the cofts can be counted
nearly. Every fpecies of materials may be
contracted for, to be delivered in due time :
then the work goes on regularly without dif-
appointment, and when done, the improve-
ments are complete, and lobl. out of loooL
at lead faved by fuch lleps;

END OF PART FOURTH.

Pktci

.■JilL&£ii£nlk ■

PJLste.lV

32 9.0

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INSE

FOLD-

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ffl^ " '"' '^' '^ '"■ '^" ' ^ ' ^

PART THE fifth:

THE

Pradicai Mill-wright:

containing;

Instructions for building mills, with all their
proportions; suitable to all falls from

3 to 36 FEET.
RECEIVEli FROM

THOMAS ELLICOTT, Mill-wright.

-y^ 'Si.-; >

■^

ii*!

CONTENTS.

The Preface explains the Plate containing the new Im-
provements.

ART. I. Of underfliot mills — directions for laying on

• the water.

Art. 2. Draughtof a forebay, with diredions for mak-
ing them durable.

Art 3. Principles and praftical experiments, to deter-
mine the proper motion for underfliot wheels.

A table for gearing underfliot wheels, fuited to all falls,
from 3 to 20 feet.

|Art- 4« Of breail mills, with directions for proportion-

I ing and gearing them, to give the ftone the right mo-
tion.

Art. 5. Of pitch-back mills, do. do,

lArt. 6. Of overihot mills, and their dimenfions.

jArt. 7. Of the proper motion for overfhot mills.

Art. 8. Of gearing the water-wheel to the mill-flones,
to give them the proper motion.

Art. 9. Rules for finding the diameter of the pitch cir-
cles.

Table of all the proportions for overfliot mills, fuitable
for all falls, from 15 to 36 feet; for 4 and 4 feet
6 inchc:., and 5 and 5 feet 6 inch ftones, diameter.

!Art. 10. Direciions for conftruiling underfliot wheels.

lArt. 11'. do. for dreffing ihafts.

Art. 12. do. for laying out mortifes for arms.

iArt. 13. do. for putting in gudgeons.

Art. 14. do. for conftrufcing cog-wheels.

lArt. 15. do. for making fpurs and head blocks.

CONTENTS.

Art. 1 6. Of the beft time for cutting cogs, and method

of feafoning them. ' •

Art. 17. Of ihanking, putting in, and drefling off the

cogs.
Art. 18. Of the little cog-wheel and ftiaft.
Art. 19. Diredlions for making wallowers and trundles.
Art. 20. do. for fixing the head blocks, and hang- i

ingthe wheels.

for finking the balance ryne.
for bridging the fpindle.
for making the crain and'lighter ftafF.
for making a hoop for the mill-

Art. 21.
Art. 22.
Art. 23.
Art. 24.

flones.
Art. 25.
Art. 26.

ftones.
Art. 27.

feeder.
Art. 28.
Art. 29."
Art. 30.

do.
do.
do.
do.

do. for grinding fand to face the ftones.
do. for laying out the furrows in new

do. for making a hopper, Ihoe, and

do. for making bolting chefts and reels,
do. for fetting bolts to go by water,
do. for making bolting wheels.

31. Of rolling fcreens.

32. Of fans.
3 3 . Of the fhaking fieve .

34. Of the ufe of draughting to build mills by.

35. Directions for draughting and planning mills.;
Art. 36. Bills of fcantling for a mill. i
Art. 37. Billsof iron work for do. j
Art. 38. Explanation of the plates. j
Art. 39. Of faw mills, with a table of the dimenfions of

flutter wheels, to fuit all heads from 6 to 30 feet.
Art. 40. Of fulling mills. \

Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.
Art.

TO THE READER.

I BEING requefted by Oliver Evans, to affift him in
completeing his book, entitled. The Young Mill-
wright and Miller's Guide — have thought proper to give
the reader a fhort hiftory of the rife and progrefs of mer-
chant mills, towards their prefent ftate of perfedion,
fmce the beginning of my time.

It is now upwards of 38 years fmce I firft began mill-
wrighting: I followed it very conftant for about ten years,
making it my particular fludy. Several of my JDrothers
being alfo mill-wrights, we kept in company ; and were
often called to different parts of this, and the adjacent
ftates, to build mills of the firft rates, in their day. Some
of them entered into the manufacturing line, but I con-
tinued at mill-wrighting, and other bufmefs connefted
therewith ; fucli as rolling fcreens, and fans, and mak-
ing them to go by water, in merchant and grift mills ;
; alfo farmers fans, for cleaning grain ; being the firft, I
i believe that made thefe things in America : but for fe-
! veral years paft, have done but little elfe, than build
i mills, or draught to build by.

I When I firft began the bufmefs, mills were at a Iova^
I ebb in this country; neither burr-ftones, nor rolling
I fcreens being ufed ; and but few of the beft merchant
! mills had a fan. Many carried the meal on their backs,
1 and bolted it by hand, even for merchant v/ork ; and I
I have frequently heard, that a little before my bep;inning
i the bufmefs, it had been cuftomary, in many inftanccs,
! to have the bolting mill fome diftance from the grind-
I ing mill, and there bolted by hand. It was counted ex-

vi TO THE READER.

traordiiiary when they got their bolthig to go by water ^
after this, fans by hand, and (landing fcreens took place ;
then bur-flones, roUing fcreens, and fuperfine bolting:
cloths, with a number of other improvements. Some
of tlie latell are, the Elevators, hopper-boys, &c.-—
^Invented by Oliver EvacSj late of Delav/are, tho' now '
of Philadelphia.

Being very def^rcus to improve in the art of building
milb, and ix.anufafturing grain into flour, I have fre-
frequently v/ent a confiderable diilance to fee new im'r
provenients, and have often fearched the book-ftores in I
expeclatioa of finding books that might inftru<6l me, but
never found any which was of ufe to me in that refped',
m.or£ than to learn the ancient names of feme parts of
the mills ; for although they had been wrote by men of
confiderable learning, in other refpedis ; yet, as they had
never been mill-v/rights themfelves, they had neither
practical, nor experimental knov/ledge to dire£l them
in the work. For inilance, fee the mill-wrights table,
in Fergufon's lectures, page 79. ; wliere the cog-wheel
is to have 127 cogs, about 154 feet diameter ; trundije,
6 ilaves, and ilones 6 feet : And in Imifon's iotrodu.6iion
to ufei'-ul knowledge, page3i, the water-wheel is to be
18 feet, cog-vvheei 254 cogs, about 31 feet diameter,
niucli higher than the water-v/heel ; — -ilaves inthetrun-r
die 6, and ftones 4-1- feet. Befides, fome have aiferted,
that water applied on an underiliot wheel, will do 6
times as much a^ if applied on an overiliot ; others, that
ii* applied on an overfhot it will do 10 times as much as
an uaderihot, the ouantity and falls beiny equal : many
ether parts of their theories are equally wrong, in prac-
tice. So that what knowledge 1 have gained, has been
bv Heady attention to the improvements of our own
c^:v:ntrv ; I have wondered, that no peribn of prac-
tical knowledge in the art, has yet attempted to wnnte a,
treatife on it, ieeing it is a iubject worthy attention,

TO THE READER. vii

and fuch a book fo much wanted. The manufafturing
of our own country produce, in the moll faving, ex-
peditious, and beil; manner, I have thought, is a fub-
je<^ worthy the attention of the legiflatures. Mills are
often laid under heavy taxes, being fuppofed to be very
profitable ; but if all the fpare wheat was to be fhipped,
where would the miller's profit be. But to return to the
fubjed: — I have often thought, that if I could fpare time
I would write a fmalltreatife on mill-wrighting myfelf,
(thinking it would be of much ufe to young iiiill-wrights)
but fearing I was not equal to the tafk, I was ready to
give it up, but on further confideration, I called on Tho-
mas Dobfon, printer of the Encyclopedia ; and afl<:ed
him if he would accept of a fmall treatife on miil-wright-
ing : he faid Oliver Evans had been there a few days
before, and propoied fuch a work, which I thought
[would fave me the trouble. But fome time afterwards,
the faid Evans, applied to me, requefting my affiftance
in his undertaking ; this I was the more willing to do,ha-
jving built feveral mills with his additional iinprovements ;
'and draughted feveral others — and without which im-
jprovements, I think a mill cannot now be faid to be com-
plete. By them the manufacture of grain into flour,
is carried on by water, with very little hand labour,
land much lefs wafte, either in fmall or large bufi-
!nefs. And I do believe, that taking a large quantity of
ivvheat together, that we can m.ake 2 or 3lbs. more
lout of a bufnel by the new, than by the old way,
although it be equally well ground ; becaufe it is fo
much more completely bolted, and with lefs v/ade. In.
die old way, the Vv'heat is weighed and carried up
pne or two pair of flairs, and thrown into garners ; the
)ags often having holes in, it is fpilt and trampled un-
ler foot ; feveral lbs. being frequently loft in receiv-
ng a fmall quantity ; and vvlien it is taken from thefe
garners, and carried to the roiling fcreens, fome is again
wafted, and as it is ground, it is fiiovcled into tubs, a.

Viii TO THE READER:

duft is raifedj aiid fbliie fpilt and trampled on ; it is theh
hoifted, and fpread, and tolled; kbout with ftib^els, over
a large floor, raked and turned to cool, and ftioveled up
again, and put into the bolting hopper ; all which occa-
fions great labour, befides being fpilt and trampled ovef-
the mill, v/liich occafions a confiderable wafte. Befides
thefe difadvantages, there are others in attending the!
bolting hoppers ; being often let run empty, then filledi
too hard, fo that they choke, ^hich dccafions the flour
to be very unevenly bolted ; fometiiiies too poor, and at
otlier times too rich, which is a confiderable lofs ; and
when the flour is bolted, it is much finer at the head than
the tail of the cloths : the fine goes through firft, and
has to be mixed by hand, with fliovels or rakes ; and this
labour is often neglected or only half done ; by thi^
means, part of the flour will be condemned for being too
poor, and the reft be above the ftandard quality. The
hoifting of the tail flour, mixing it with bran, by hand,
and bolting it over, is attended with fo much labour, that
it is feldom done to perfeftion.

In the new way, all thefe inconveniences and difad
vantages are completely provided againft : See plate X :
whicli is a reprefentation of the machinery, as they arc
applied in the whole procefs of the manufafture, takinc,
the grain from the fliip or waggon, and pafling it thro
the whole procefs by water, until it is completely manu-
faftured into fuperfine flour. As they are applied in it
mill of my planning and draughting, now in a6lual prac-
tice, built on Occoquam river, in Virginia, with 3 water-
wheels, and 6 pair of ftones.

If the wheat comes by water to the mill in the Ihip Z
it is meafured and poured into the hopper A, and thenc<
conveyed into the elevator at B, which elevates it, anc
drops it into the conveyer C D, which conveys it alonf
under the joifts of the fecond floor, and drops it into tb<
hopper garner at D, out of which it is conveyed inti

TO THE READER. it

the main wheat elevator at E, which carries it up into the
peak of the roof, and delivers it into the rolling fcreen
atF, which (in this plan) is above the colar beams, out
of which it falls into the hopper G, thence into the fhort
elevator at H, which conveys it up into the fan I, from
whence it runs down flanting into the middle of the long
conveyer at j that runs towards both ends of the mill,
and conveys the grain as cleaned into any garner K K K
K KK, over all the ftones, which is done by fliifting a
board under the fan, to guide the grain to either fide
of the cog-wheel j, and although each of thefe garners
fliould contain 2000 bufhels of wheat, over each pair of
ftones, 12000 bufhels in 6 garners, yet nearly all may
be ground out without handling it, and feed the ftones
more even and regular than it is poffible to do in the old
way. As it is ground by the feveral pair of ftones, the
meal falls into the meal conveyer at M M Mj and is con-
veyed into the common meal elevator at N, which raifes
it to O, from thence runs down into the hopper-boy at
P, which fpreads and cools it over a circle of 10 or 15
feet diameter, and (if thought beft) will raife over it,
and form a heap tvv^o or three feet high, perhaps thirty
barrels of floor or more at a time, which may be bolted
down at pleafure. When it is bolting the hopper-boy
gathers it into the bolting hoppers at Q, and attends them
more regularly than is ever done by hand. As it is bolt-
ed the conveyer R in the bottom of the fuperfine cheft,
conveys the fuperfine flour to a hole through the floor
at S, into the packing cheft, which mixes it completely.
Out of the packifip- cheft it is filled into the barrel at T,
weighed in the fcale U, packed at Why w^ater, headed
at X, and rolled to the door Y, then lowered down by
a rope and v/indlafs into the fhip again at Z.

If the Vv^aeat comes to the ivMl by land, in the waggon
7, it is emptied from the bags into a fpout that is in the
v/all, and it runs in the fca'e 8, which is large enough
to hold a waggon load, and as it is v»'eighed it is fby draw-

X TOTHEREADER.

ing a gate at bottom) let run into the garner D, out of l|
which it is conveyed into the elevator at E, andfo thro' i^
the fame procefs as before. ,1

As much of the tail of the fuperfine reels 37 as we thick '
will not pafs infpe6lion, we fuffer to pafs on into the Ihort
elevator, (by Ihutting the gates at the bottom of the con-
veyer next the elevator, and opening one further to-
wards the other end) The rubbUngs, which falls at the
tail of faid reels, is alfo hoifted into the bolting hoppers
of the fifting reel 39, which is covered with a fine cloth, 1
to take out all the fine flour duft, which will flick to the
bran, in warm damp weather, and ail thatpalTes thro'
it is conveyed by the conveyer 40, into the elevator 41,
which elevates it fo high that it will run freely into the
hopper-boy at O, and is bolted over again with the
ground meal. The rubblings that falls at the tail of the
lifting reel 39, falls hito the hopper of the middlings.'
reel 42 ; and the bran falls at the tail into the lower flory.
Thus you have it in your power either by day or night,
without any hand labour except to fliift the fliders, or
fome fach trifle, to make your flour to fuit the flandard
quality ; and the moft fuperfine poflible made out of the
grain, and finifbed complete at one operation.

Thefe improvements are a curiofity worthy the no-
tice ot the philofopher and ftatefman, to fee with what
harmony the whole machinery works in all their differ-
ent operations.

But to conclude, agreeable to requefl I attempt to Ihew
the method of making and putting water on the feveral
kinds of water-wheels commonly ufed, with their dimen-
iions,&c. fulted to fails and heads from 3 to 36 feet ; and
have calculated tables for gearing them to miil-flones ;
and made draughts* of feveral water-wheels with their
forebays and manner of putting on the water, Sec,

THOMAS ELLICOTT.

* \\\ my draughts are taken from a fcale oi'8 feet to an inch, except pi. V. which is 4 feet
ti) an idch.

THE

Pradicai Mill- w right.

OF UNDERSHOT MILLS.

FIG. I, plate I, reprelents an underlliot Art. i.
wheel 1 8 feet diameter, with 3 feet total
head and fall. It fhould be 2 feet wide for
every foot the mill-llones are in diameter ; that
is, 8 feet between the fhrouds for a 4 feet, and
10 feet wade for a 5 feet ftone. It iiiould have
three fets of arms and fhrouds, on account of
its great width. Its (liaft fliould be at leall 26
inches diameter. It requires 12 arms, 18 feet
long, 31-2 inches thick, by 9 wide; and 24
fhrouds y 1-2 feet long, 10 inches deep, by 3
thick, and 32 floats 15 inches wide. Note,
it may be geared the fame as an overlliot
wheel, of equal diameter. Fig. 2 reprefents
the forebay, with its fills, pofls, fluice and fall :
I have in this cafe allowed i foot fall and 2
feet head.

Fig. 3 reprefents an underfhot wheel 18 feet
diameter, withy feet head and fall. It fhould
be as widebetw^een the flirouds as the ftoiic is
in diameter. Its fiiaft fliould be 2 feet diame-
ter. Requires 8 arms 18 feet long, 3 1-4 of an

14 Of Undershot Mills.

Art. 2. and injure the gates. See it at the head of fore-l

bay, fig. 7, plate V. This is done by fetting
a frame 3 feet in front of the forebay, and lay-
ing a fill 2 feet in front of it, for the bottom o:
the rack : in it the ftaves are put, made oi
laths, fetedgewife with the llream, 2 inches a-
part, their upper ends nailed to the cap of the
laft frame, which caul'es them to lean dowr
ftream. The bottom of the race mull: b{
planked between the forebay and rack, tc
prevent the water from making a hole b}
tumbling through the rack when choaked
and the fides be planked outfide the polls u'
keep up the banks. This rack muft be doubl(;
as long as the forebay is wide, or elfe the waj
ter will not come f aft enough through it to keej
the head up ; for the head is the fpring o|
motion, of an underlhot mill.

Art. 3« Of the Principle of Under/hot Mills .

THEY differ from all others in principle
becaufe the water loofes all its force by the firi
ftroke ao;ainft the floats ; and the time this forc<
is fpending, is in proportion to the difterenci
of the velocities of the wheel and water, an
the diftance of the floats. Other mills hav
the weiffht of the water after the force of th
head is fpent, and will continue to move ; bt
an underlhot will ftop as foon as the head
fpent, as they depend not on the weight. The
fhould be geared fo, that when the ftone got
with a proper motion, they will not run tc
faft with the water, fo as not to receive i

Of Undershot Wheels. 15

force ; nor too flow, fo as to loofe its power Art. 3-
jy rebounding and dafhing over the buckets,
rhis matter requires very clofe attention,
and has puzzled our mechanical philofo-
Dhers to find it out by theory. They give us
for a rule, that the wheel muft move jufl 1-3
:he velocity of the water; — perhaps this may ;

ml where the head is not much higher than
:he float boards, but I am fully convinced it
vvill not fuit high heads.

Experiments for determining the proper Motion for
Under/hot IVheels,

I drew a full fluice of water on an underfhot
ivheel with 15 feet head and fall, and counted
ts revolutions per minute ; then geared it to
I mill-flone, fet it to work properly, and again
:ounted its revolutions, and the difference was
lot more than one fourth flower. I believe,
hat if I had checked the motion of the wheel

0 be equal 1-3 the motion of the water, that
|he water would have rebounded and flew up
[0 the fiiaft. Hence I conclude, that the moti-
!»n of the water m.ufl: not be checked by the
jvheel more than 1-3, nor lefs than 1-4; elfe
|t will loofe in power : for although the wheel
k^ill carry a greater load with a flow, than
|vvift motion, yet it will not produce fo great
jffe^l, its motion being too flow. And again,
ir the motion be too fwift, the load or refift-
nee It will overcome will be fo much lefs, that
:s effe^l will be leffened alfo. I conclude, that
bout 2-3 the velocity of the water is the

1 roper motion for underfliot wheels, the

l6 Of Undershot Wheels.

Art. 3» water will then fpend all its force in th<i

diftance of 2 float boards ; notwithftanding
the learned authors have afferted it to be bu
1-3. To confute them, fuppofe the floats i:
inches, and the column of water ftriking them
8 inches deep ; then, if 2-3 of the motion o
this column be checked, it mull inftantly be
come 24 inches deep, and rebound againll thi
backs of the floats, and the wh^el would b!
wallowing in this dead water : whereas, whe:
1-3 of its motion is checked, it becomes onl
12 inches deep, and runs oft from the whee
fmooth and lively.

Uire^ions for gearing Under fkot Wheels, iS fet
Diameter, Tvhere the Head is above 3 andunde
'8 feety with double Gears ; counting the Hea

• fro77i the .point where the Water ftrikes tl
Fhats.

1. For 3 feet head and 18 feet wheel, fe
18 feet wheel in the overfhot table.

2. For 3 feet 8 inches head, fee 17 fee
wheel in faid table.

3. For 4 feet 4 inches head, fee 16 fee
wheel in do.

4. For 5 feet head, fee 15 feet wheel in dc

5. For 5 feet 8 inches head, fee 14 fee
wheel in do.

6. For 6 feet 4 inches head, fee I3 fee
wheel in do.

7. For 7 feet head, fee 1 2 feet wheel in dc
The revolutions of the wheels will be neaJi

ly equal ; therefore the gears may be the fame
The following' table is calculated to fuit fc

any fized fione, from 4 to 6 feet diam.eter

Of Under'shot AVh^els.

different fized water-wheels from 1 2 to 18 feet
diameter, and diiferent heads from 8 to 20 feet
above the point it Itrikes the floats. And to
make 5 feet ftones revolve 88 times ; 4 feet 6
inch ftones 97 times ; and 4 feet {tones 106
times in a minute, when the water wheel moves
2-3 the velocity of the ftriking water.

Art. 3.

Mill-'wrights Table for Underjhot-iiiills — Single
Geared.

9
10
ji

15
16

17
18

20
1

2 fD

15
16

17
17
18
18

2.^
? 2.

-0 2

>-. 0

5 0

3 a

5' 2

3 -^

c Sj

c ;;!

rf> ^

ft rr

fO 0

0 <T)

H-. EI"
3 ft

• ;^

5^^

(D P

-5

r-r f^

. 0

-a

»-t

"-1

*"■

1360

906

1448

9<55

23 a

1521

1014

23^

^595

1061

22^

1666

iiii

22i

1735

^^57

23T

1800

1200

1863

1242

24i^

1924

1283

25T

19S3

1322

2041

1 3 61

25T

2097

1398

2152

'435

25^

0
^

•2!,

B <

E" 0

P C

►^

£R

P!5
0

(1)

■-t

88
88

62
60

tsi

O-P

-h"!

?r=^

° S

s" n

0 '-t

<i>

p-s>

^ 0'
re s

-1
0

■-n

jr 0

^ **>

(T)

^ fi

^ n

fi)

2 3

C/J

B-

^ T

rt-

Ci
3

fo 0

3i5

3v5

3t5

3 5

345

3t5

3?5

3Y5

3f5

3;5

3t5

38;^

1°

i8 Of Breast-Wheels.

Note that there is nearly 60 cogs in the
cog-wheel, in the foregoing table, and 60 inch-
es is the diameter of a 5 feet (tone ; therefore,
it will do without fenfible error, to put i cog
more in the wheel for every inch that the (tone
is lefs than 60 inches diameter, down to 4 feet ;
the trundle head and water-wheel the fame.

And for every 3 inches that the ftoneis larg-
er than 60 inches in diameter, put i round
more in the trundle, and the motion of the:
ftone v/ill be nearly right up to 6 feet diame-
ter.

Art. 4. ' OfBreaJl-JFheels.

BREAST wheels differ but little in their
llrufture or motion from overftiots, excepting
only, the water pafles under inlliead of over
them, and they rnuft be wider in proportion as
their fall is lefs.

Fig. I , plate II, reprefents a low breaft with
8 feet head and fall. It fliould be 9 inch
es wide for every foot of the diameter of the
(lone. Such wheels are generally 18 feet dia-'
meter ; the number and dimenfions of their
parts being as follows : 8 arms 18 feet long,
3 1-4 by 9 inches ; 1 6 Ihrouds 8 feet long, 2 1-2
by 9 inches ; ^6 buckets ; and Ihaft, 2 feed
diameter.

Fig. 2 fhevv's the forebay, water gate, and
fall, and manner of ftriking on the water.

Fig. 3 is a middling bread-wheel 18 feet di-
ameter, with 12 feet head and fall. It fiiould

Of Pitch-back Wheels. 19

be 8 inches wide for every foot the (tone is in Art. 4.
diameter.

Fig. 4 fhews the forebay, gate and fall, and
manner of ftriking on the water.

Fig. 5 and 6 is a liigh breail-wheel, 1 6 feet
diameter, with 3 feet head in the forebay, and
10 feet fall. It fliould be 7 inches wide for
every foot the Hone is in diameter. The nmn-
ber and dimenfions of its parts are, 6 arms 16
feet long, 31-4 by 9 inches ; 12 flirouds 8 feet
6 inches long, 2 1-2 by 8 or 9 inches deep,
and 48 buckets.

Of Pitch-hack Wheels. Art.

PITCH-BACK wheels are conftrutSted ex-
adlly fimilar to bread-wheels, only the water
is ftruck on them higher. Fig. i, plate HI,
is a wheel 18 feet diameter, with 3 feet head
in the penftock, and 16 feet fall below it. It
lliould be 6 inches wide for every foot of the
diameter of the (tone.

Fig. 2 Ihews the trunk, penftock, gate and
fall, the gate Aiding on the bottom of the pen-
ftock, and drawn by the lever A, turning on a
roller. This wheel is much recommended by
fome mechanical philofophers, for the faving of
Vv^ater ; but I do not join them in opinion, but
think that an overfliot with equal head and fail,
is fully equal in power : befides, the faving the
expence of fo high a wheel and fall, that are
difficult to be kept in order.

20 Of Overshot Wheels,

Art. 6. Of Over Jhot Wheels.

OVERSHOT wheels receive their water on
the top, being moved by its weight ; and are
niuch to be recommended where there is fall
enough for them. Fig. 3 reprefents one 18
feet diameter, which fliould be about 6 inches:
wide for every foot the ftone is in diametery
It fhould hang 8 or 9 inches clear of the tailij
water, becaufe they draw it under them. The
head in the penflock Ihould be generally about'
3 feet, which will fpoiit the water about 1-3
f after than the wheel moves. Let the fhute
have about 3 inches fall, and direct the water
into the wheel at the centre of its top.

I have calculated a table for gearing over::!
fnot wheels, which will equally well fuit any oi
the others of equal diameter, that have equal
heads above the point v/liere the water ftrikes
the wheel.

Dimenfions of this wheel, 8 arms 18 feet!
long, 3 by 9 inches ; 1 6 fhrouds 7 feet -9 inche
long, 2 1-2 by 7, or 8 inches ; ^6 b^uckets, and
fhaft, 24 inches diameter.

fig. 4 reprefents the penftock and trunk.
&c. tiie water being let on the wheel by draw-,
ing the gate G.

Fig. I and 2, plate IV, reprefents a low
overlhot 12 feet diameter, which ihould be in
v/idth equal to the diameter of the ftone. Its
parts and dimenfions are, 6 arm.s 12 feet long
3 1-2 by 9 inches ; 12 flirouds, 61-2 feet long,,
2 1-2 by 8 inches; fliatt 22 inches diam.eter
and 10 buckets,

Of Overshot Wheels. 2I

Fig. 3 reprefeiits a very high overlhot 30 Art. 6.

jfeet diameter, which fliould be 3 1-2 inches

wide for every footof the diameter of the ftone.

Its parts and dimenfions are, 6 main arms, 30

feet long, 3 1-4 inches thick, 10 inches wide at

the fhaft, and 6 at the end ; 12 fliort arms 14

jfeet long, of equal dimenfions ; which are framr

ed into the m^ain arms near the Ihaft, as in the

figure ; for if they were all put through the

^jftiaft, they ^vould make it too weak. The fhaft

^jlhould be 27 inches diameter, the wheel being

'[very heavy and bearing a great load. Such

high wheels require but little w ater.

Of the Motion ofOverpot Wheels. Art. 7.

AFTER trying many experiments, I con-
cluded that the circumference of overlliot
wheels geared to mill-flones, grinding to the
beft advantage, fliould move 550 feet in a mi-
nute ; and that of the flones 1375 feet in the
fame time ; that is, while the wheel moves 12,
ithe ftone moves 30 inches, in the proportion of
2 to 5.

I Then, to find Iiow often the v^Aheel we pro-
pofe to make will revolve in a minute, take the
following fteps : ifc, Find the circumference
of the wheel by multiplying the diameter by

22, and dividing bv 7, thus :

" ' 16

Suppofe the diameter to ] ^-

be 16 feet, then 16 muki- j TT"

plied by 22, produces 352; j> 32

which, divided by 7, quotes | ^777^
50-5- for the circumference. J

50-^

)■

22 Of Gearing.

Art. 7. By which we divide 550, "|

the diftance the wheel
moves in a minute, and it
quotes 1 1, for the revolu-
tions of the wheel per mi-
nute, cafling off the frac-
tion -^, it being fmall. J

To find the revolutions "|
of the ftone per minute, 4
feet 6 inches (or 54 inches)
diameter,multiply 54 inch-
es by 22, and divide by 7,
and it quotes 169^ (fay
170) inches, the circum-
ference of the ftone.

By which divide 1375")
feet, or 16500 inches, the
diftance the Jkirt of the
ftone Ihould move in a mi-
nute, and it quotes 97 ; the
revolutions of a ftone per
minute, 4.1 feet diameter.

To find how often the"^
ftone revolves for once of
the water wheel, divide 97,
the revolutions of the ftone,
by ID, the revolutions of]
the wheel, and it quotes I
8,^-^, (fay 9 times). J

S\o)55\o

II times,

54
22

108
108

7)1188

169

J375
12

;7Jo)i6jo|o(97
T53

120
119

197(8^?^
88

Art.

'I
Of Gearing. !

NOW, if the mill was to be fmgle geared!
99 cogs and 1 1 rounds, would give the ftom

Of Gearing.

the right motion, but the cog-wheel would be Art. s.
too larore, and trundle too fmall, therefore it

125

375

528

264

375)3168(8^

3000

x68

muflbe double geared.

Suppofe we choofe 66'\
cogs in the big cog-wheel
ind48 in the little one, and
25 rounds in the wallower,
ind 15 in the trundle.

Then, to find the revo-
lutions of the ftone for
me of the water-wheel,
nultiply the cog-wheels
;ogether, and the wallow-
er and trundle together,
ind divide one produd; by
;he other, and it v/ill quote
;he anfwer, Si-l-f, not quite
54 revolutions inftead of 9 .
Fherefore we muft make another proportion
— Confiderino; which of the wheels we had
)eO: alter, and wilhing not to alter the big
:og- wheel nor trundle, we put one round lefs
n the wallower, and 2 coo;s more in the little
:og-wheel, and multiplying and dividing asbe-
ore, we find the ftone v/ill turn 9^ times for
)nce of the water-wheel, v/hich is as near as
ye can get. The mill now itands thus, a 16
|bot overfhot v/heel, that will revolve 1 1 times
n a minute, geared to a ftone 41-2 feet dia-
neter ; the big cog-wheel 66 cogs, 41-2 inch-
;s from centre to centre of the cogs ; (which
ve call the pitch of the gear) little cog-wheel
\o cogs 41-4 pitch ; wallower 24 rounds, 4

2 pitch, and trundle 15 rounds, 41-4 inches
)itch.

24 Rules for finipjng, the Qiameter, &c.

Art.

Rtd'es fir finding the Diameter of the Pitch
Circles.

264

297

22)2079(94|iiijc.
198

99
88

To find the diameter of ^
the pitch, citcle, that the
cogs Hand in, multiply the
number of cogs by the
pitch, which gives the cir- j
cumxfereiice ; which, mul- V
tiplied by 7, and divided
by 22, gives the diameter
in inches ; which, divided

by 12, reduces it to feet

and inches tiius : j „

For the cog-wheel of 66 cogs, 4 1-2 pitch, we
find to be 7 feet 104I inches, the diameter of
pitch circle ; to which I add 8 inches, for the
Gutfide of the cogs, makes 8 feet 6 1-2 inches '
the diameter from out to out. \

By the fame rules I find the diameters of the'
pitch circles of the other wheels, to be as fol-
lovx^s, viz. ft. in. j

Little cog-wheel 56 cogs,

4 1-4 inches pitch,
I add for the outfide of the

circle,

5 74-^P-circ|
7i

Total diamet. from out to out 6 3

\¥aliov/er 24 rounds 4. 1-2 ?

inches pitcn, C ^ -^^4 r^-

Add for outfides, o 3 -H

Total diameter from the ?

outfides, r 3 3

lo.B

1:1'

Rules fOK finding the Diameter, &c. 25
Trundle head 1 5 rounds, ? ^' o'l j j

, . , > I 04- -^-r QOi

41-4 men pitch, ^

Add for outfides 24 ^

I II

Total diameter for the

outfides,

Thus we have completed the calculation^
for one mill, with a 16 feet overfhot water-
wheel, and ftones 41-2 feet diameter. By
the fame rules we may calculate for wheels
of all fizes from 1 2 to 30 feet, and ftones from
4 to 6 feet diameter, and may form tables
that may be of great ufe to many, even to
mafter workmen that underftand calculating
well in difpatching of bufinefs, in laying out
work for their apprentices and other hands,
igetting out timber, &c. but more efpecially
to thofe who are not learned in arithmetic
ifufficient to calculate, I being from long ex-
perience highly fenfible of the need of fuch a
|table, have therefore undertaken the arduous
italk.

MILL-WHIGHTS TABLES,

Calculated to fuit overlhot water-wheels
with fuitable heads above them, of all fizes
Prom 12 to 30 feet diameter, the velocity of
heir circumferences being about 550 feet per
ninute, lliewing the number of cogs and
'ounds in ail the wheels, double gear, to give
phe circumference of the ftone a velocity of
[375 feet per minute, alfo the diameter of
heir pitch-circles, the diameter of the out-

Explanation of the Tables.

fides, and revolutions of the water-wheel and
ftones per minute.

For particulars fee what is written over
the head of each table. Table I. is to fuit a

4 feet flone, table II. a 4 1-2, table III. a

5 feet, and table IV. a 5 1-2 feet ftone.

N. B. If the ftones ihouldbe an inch or tvv^o 1
bigger or iefs than thofe above defcribed,
make uTe of the table that comes neareft ta
it, and likevvife for the water-wheels. For
further particulars fee draughting mills.

Ufe cf the fblloiving Tables,

Having levelled your mill-feat and found the
total fall, after making due allowances for the
fall in the races, and below the wheel, Suppofe
there is 21 feet 9 inches, and the mill-Hones
are 4 feet diameter, then look in table T, (which
is for 4 feet ftones) column 2, for the fall that
is neareft your's, and you find it in the 7th ex-
ample : and againft it in column 3, is the head
proper to be above the wlieel 3 feet, in co-
lumn 4 is 18 feet, for the diameter of the
wheel, &c. for- all the proportions of the
gears to make a fteady moving mill, the ftones
to revolve 106 times in a minute.^'

* The following tables are calculated to give the ftones the revolutions
per minute mentioned in them, as near as any fuitable nunujer of cogs and
rounds would permit, which motion I find is 8 or lo revolutions per minute
flower than propofed by Evans in his table; — his motion may do beft ia
cafes where there is plenty of power and fteady work on one kind of grain :
but in country mills, where they are continually changing from one kind to
another, and often {Larting and flopping, I prefume a flow motion will work,
moil regular. His table being calculated for only one fize of mill-ftcnes,
and mine for four, if any choofe his motion, look for the width of the wa-
ter-wheel, number of cogs, and rounds and fize of the wheels to fuit them,
in the next example following, keeping to my table in other refpefts, and
-,011 w'iil have his r.iction nearly.

TABLE I. For Overfhot Mills with Stones 4 feet Diameter to revolve 106 times
in a minute. Pitch of the gear of great cog wheel and wallower 4^ inches
and of leffer cog wheel and trundle 4^ inches.

,^g.^UO

;:j n o ^

-» O * '^ T

3'.

-.^

^ -^

£? V.

rt c-

?, _o

J -^

0 -^

T 0

2 -V

^ -I

f»
-1 ~>

B
- R

? s.

2 t

^ ^'

P,S^

■ OK?

ft
0

n , li.

SI "

^2
o c

"I ""

lu O

5 a'

rT 3-

„. d

=F^

tr 3

'.-.. ?=

f. i. feet ;f. i.

TABLE II. For Overfhot Mills with Stones 4 feet 6 inches Diameter to revolve
95 times in a minute, pitch of the gears 4^ and 4\ inches.

I
a
3
4
5
6

7
8

13
13
14
15
16

17
18

-.f%

<-r I — n

0
0

a
0
0

0 •
P

!:>:

"-I

<i>

, ,

fc-*.

i 5

ft. in.

ft.in.

3 hT.
3- 1^

ft.in.

'^ I a TO 3
" ■-» ni

-. o

— Cf<5

q --■

1 L-'.

5 o

ft.Ir

ft. in.

'•" 5

jj "-

15-3
16,4

I7,i
18,6

19.7

20,8

21,9

22,10

23>ii

s6,3

i7?5
£8,7
29; 9
30."

32.,!

33>3
34,6
35,9

2,6

a,7

2,8

2.9

2,10

2,11

3>o

3,1

3.2

3,4

3,6

3,8

3,10

/!,0

4,2

4,4

4,6

4,;

5.0

3,4

2,6

2,4

2>3

1.9

1,8

1,6

1,5

1,4

8,iii

6, oi

8, 6i
6, ol
S.ioi
6, 01
8,ioi
6. oi
8,ioi
6, 3

9, 3
6, 6

9' 3
6, 6

9, 7i
6, 6

9. 7i
6, 6
9,114
6, 6

6, 6

9'"t
6, 8i
10, 4

6, 4
10, 4

6,ii4

10. ^

6,iii

10, 8-}

7, «i
10, 8i

6,iiii 13

10, g^ 22

6,1 'f 13

3. -I?
,, 8-f

2,iii

;• fi

J, ♦ +
^, 8|

2,Il4

2,111

I. 8|
3, li
I, 8|

2,lli

I, 8i

2,Ioi

I. H

2.10i

1, 8|

2, 9

1, 8|

2,10i
:, H

2, 9

I. ^i

2, 9

I 8i

2, 0
«. 8|
2, 9

1, 8i

2, 9

1, 8i

2, 9

1. 5i

2, 7^

ft in

3. 4v
i,ii4

3. 3 ■
J, III
3. 4*
1,1*4

3, 3
i,u

3, 3

3, 4i
i,iii
3, 3
r.iif
3, 24
',"t
3, 24
1,114
3> o
1,1^

i,Ji4

3, o

3. o
.,ii|

3, o

i,u4

3, o

1,114

3, o
1.114

3. o

■ ,i«4

3, o

I, H

2,104

1, 84

ST <

2 OP

6|
6i

==Q

Table hi. stones 5 feet Dlamttcr to revolve 86 times in a minute, tlic

pitch of the gears 4-^ and 4^ inches.

O'-

r, -»

r. ^

1^:^

" 0

5.S

n ^

■"

" ET

■T3

3 3

1
0

a 0

n
•-I

-I

^ -I

„ 2

- 0 c

-,0

-k

-' CJ "

0 fj

12 0

" 2

5 2

p 0

c n

"■ 0

f«(K)

'HS

-Z

■O (

a- S'

- 3
■-t o

3 C5

5 ft

n O

Zcrq

ft.in.

15.3
16,4

17.J
18,6

19. 7

ao,S
21,9
22,10
33,11

ft-in.

36,3

»7.5

28,7

29,9

50.11

3^,1

33,3

34,6

15?

ft.in.

2,6

3,7

13 ;

2,8

14 1

2,9

2,10

2,11

3,0

3,1

5,3

3,4

3,6

3,8

3.10

4,0

4,2

4,4

4,6

4,9

5,0

ft.

ft. in.

3,6
3,4
3,»
3,0
2,10

3,8

2,6

3, J

2,4

2,3

2,0

1,11

1.9

1,7
1,6

7,6-^
5,4 I
7,10^
5,4 I
7,104
5,4 i
8.3-

5,4 i
8,2 X

5,4 i
8,2 i

5,7 i

8,7
5,10^
8,7 i
5, lot
8,7 4
5,ioi

.»i7

5,ici

8,iii
:53| 5,ici
I 7§i 9.3 i
'52 .5,>o-f
1 78 9,3 t
'53I J.'O-i
78 9,3 *
'54 6,1

9.8

6,1

9,8

6.5 i
10,0^

6,3 i

10,01-

6.6 i

io,c4
6,5 i

8,2 it 26
6,0 i
8,6 i
6,0 4

8.6 i
6,0 A
8,ic4
6,0 i
8,ioi
6,0 A
8,ici
6,3
9-3
6,6

9.3
6,6

9.7 7
6,6

9,iii
6,6

9,iii

6.8 i
10,4
6,8 i
10,4
6,iii
io,8A
6,iiA
10. 8i

io,8i
6,11^

:6
26
16
35

»5
26

35
15
35
15
26

1^^5
14

34
14
23
14
34
14
35
14
35
14
33
14
35

23
14

14
33
13

1,9 T
5.1 i
1,9 I

2,Il4
3,lli

1,8 i

3,lli

^.8 A

2,11^
1,8 i

3,10i

1,8 f

2,IoA
1.8 A

2,9

1,8 4
2,io4
1,8 I

^.9
1,8 I

2,9
1,8 i
2,0
1,8 I

3,9

1,8 I

2,9

1,8 ^
3,9
1,8 I

3,9

1,5 4

I 2,0 J
I 3--4 I: I

2.4 i
3,3

3,5
3,3
3,4 i

I, Hi

5,3
1,11^
3,3 i
i,lii

5,3 ^

l,IIi

5,0

1,11*

5.3 i

3,0

I,Ili

3,0
i,iii

3.0

5.0

5,0
I.lji

5,0

5.0

1,8 I

,2A
12
Ilf
11

7i
Ih
6i

6i
6|

TABLE IV. For Overfnot Mills with Stones j feet 6 inches Diameter to
revolve 80 times in a minute the pitch of the gears 4^ and 4^ inches.

!^ 1

p »5'i

o « ^

^ n

S- »

5-^
3-S-

I'i'

3 ."=

3 5

►-S 0

S'o

0 „

2 S-

5 (=^

»-t

P 0
. 3 f^

n ?5

0 0
0 -^

."■ 0

0.3
3"

15 0

C _
3 2.

p. ^

a^ 2

qn 0

ft, in .

ft.in.

fee

ft.

3
4
5
6

7
8

10
II

iz
13
14
15
16

17
18

15,3
16,4

17,5
18,6

^9.7
20, g

21,9

aa,io

23,11

a6,3

27>5
a8,7

29,9
30,11

32,1
33,3
34,'>
35,9

2,6

a,7

*>9

a,io

2,11

3,0
3,1

3,2

3,4

3,6

3,8

3,10

4,0

4,2

4 4

4,6

4,9 29

5,0

■60

(66

9,5 ^
6,2 i

8,2 4

6,4 i

8,7 ■^■

8, Til

6,6 i

8,iii

6,4 i

9.4 i

6,4 i

9,4 1

6,4 i

9,4^

6,2^

9,8 i^

6,iof
9,8 1

»4

6,ioi

9,^i

6,10

10,1 i

6,10

10,1 i

6,10

10,6

6,10

fo,6

6,10

10,6

^-3

7.1

10,10^

-3

7,1

10,10^

7.3 4

11,3

7.3 4

11)3

7.6 i

»4

3,3 t
I, II

3.3 i
i,ii

3,3 i
1,1 1

3.3 4
1,94
3,3 i
1,9 f
3,1 4
^.94
3^1 i
1.9 4
3,3 I
1,8

" T ^

OjI +

1,8

3,0 I
1,8
3,0 I
1,8

2,I0j

1,8

3,0 f

1,8
2,Io|

2,I0|

1,8

2,10^

1,8

a,io|:

1,8

2,10^

1,8

2,loJ

1,8

3,6 i
2,2

3,6 i
3,2

3,6 i
2,2

3,6 I

2,0 i

3,6 i

2,0 -I

3,4 I
2,0 i

3.4 I

2.0 ^
3,6 I
I, II

3,4 i
I, II

3.3 "i
1,11

3,3 I
1,11

3.1 I
I, II

3,3 i

T,II

3.1 I
I, II

3.1 f
1,11

J, I 4
1,11

3,1 I
1,11

3.1 f
I, II

3,1 f
I, II

345 67 89

Of constructing Wheels. 31

Dirc3ions for conJlniBingUnderflwt T^heels, fuch Art. 10.
i^'S Jig. I, plate 1.

1 . Drefs the arms flraight and fquare on all
fides, and find the centre of each ; divide each
into 4 equal parts on the fide fquare centre
Icribe, and gauge them from the upper fide a-
crofs each point, on both fides, 6 inches each
way from the centre.

2. Set up a truckle or centre-poft, for a cen-
tre to frame the wheel on, in a level place of
ground, and fet a ftake to keep up each end of
the arms level with the truckle, of convenient
height to work on.

3. Lay the firll arm with its centre on the
centre of the truckle, and take a fquare notch
out of the upper fide 3-4 of its depth, wade
enough to receive the 2nd arm.

4. Make a fquare notch in the lower edge
of the 2nd arm, 1-4 of its depth, and lay it in
the other, and they will joint ftanding fquare
acrofs other.

5. Lay the 3rd arm juft equi-diftant be-
[tween the others, and fcribe the lower arms by
[the fide of the upper, and the lower edge of
jtlie upper by the fides of the lower arms.
[Then, take the upper arm oif and ftrike the
fquare fcribes, taking out the low^er half of
[the 3rd arm, and the upper half of the lower
arms, and fit and lay them together.

I 6. Lay the 4th arm on the others, and fcribe
las directed before ; then take 3-4 of the lower
edge of the 4th arm, and 1-4 out of the up-
per edge of the others, and lay them toge-
ther, and they will be locked together in the
depth of one.

32 Of constructing "Wheels.

4rt. iQ. 7. Make a fweep-ftafF with a gimblet hole

for the centre at one end, which muft be fet by
a gimblet in the centre of the arms. Meafure
from this hole half the diameter of the wheel,
making a hole there, and another the depth:
of the Ihrouds towards the centre, makhig-
each edge of this fweep at the end next thej
fhrouds, ftraight towards the centre hole, to!
fcribe the ends of the Ihrouds by.

8. Circle both edges of the flirouds by the
fweep, drefs them to width and thicknefs, lay
out the laps 5 inches long, fet a gauge to a lit-j
tie more than 1-3 their thicknefs, gauge all
their ends for the laps from the outfides, cut
them all out but the laft, that it may be made
a little longer, or fhorter, as may fuit to make
the wheel the right diameter ; fweep a circle
on the arms to lay the flirouds to, while fitting
them, put a fmall draw-pin in the middle 6i
each lap, to draw the joints clofe, ftrike a trud
circle for both infide and outfide the fhroudsj
and one i 1-2 inch from the infide, where
|;he arms are to be let in.

9. Divide the circle into 8 equal parts, com-
ing as near the middle of each fliroud as poili-
ble ; ftrike a fcribe acrofs each to lay out the
notch by, that is to be cut i 1-2 inch deep, tb
let in the arm at the bottom of where it is to
be forked to take in the remainder of the
iliroud. Strike a fcribe on the arms with the
fame fweep that the ftroke on the ihrouds for
the notches was ftruck with. i

10. Scribe fquare down each fide of the
arms, at the bottom of where they are to be
forked ; make a gauge to fit the arms, fo wide
as juft to tai^e in the Ihrouds, and leave i 1-2

Of constructing Wheels. 33

inch of wood outfide of the mortife ; bore 1 Art. 10.
or 2 holes through each end of the arms to
draw-pin the iiirouds to the arms when hung ;
mark all the arms and fhrouds to their places,
and take them apart.

ir. Fork the arms, put them together a-
gain, and put the fhrouds into the arms ;
drawbore them, but not too much, which
would be worfe than too little; take the
iiirouds apart again, turn them the other fide
up, and draw the joints together with the pins,
land lay out tlie notches for 4 floats between
leach arm, 32 in all, large enough for admit- *

ting keys to keep them fall, but allowing them
to drive in when any thing gets under the
wheel. The ends of the floats mull: be dovetail-
ed a little into the fhrouds ; when one fide is
framed, frame the other to fellow it. This
done, the wheel is ready to hang, but remem-
ber to face the flirouds between the arms with
inch boards, nailed on with ftrong nails, to
keep the wheel firm together.

Diredions for DreJJtng Shafts, &c. Art. il»

THE fliaft for a water-wheel with 8 arms
fliouid be 1 6 fquare, or 1 6 fided, about two feet
diameter, the tree to make it being 2 feet 3
inches at the top end. When cut down faw
it off fquare at each end and roll it on level
Adds, and if it be not ftraight, lay the rounding
fide down and view it, to find the fpot for the
centre at each end. Set the big compafles to
half its diameter and fwcep a circle at each

34 Of constructing Wheels.

Art. II, end, plum a line acrofs each centre, and at each
fide at the circle, flriking chalk lines over the!
plum lines at each fide from end to end, and
drefs the fides plum to thefe lines ; turn it down
on one fide, fetting it level ; plum, line, and:
drefs off the fides to a 4 fquare ; fet it exaftlyi
on one corner, and plum, line, and drefs offi
the corner to 8 fquare. In the fame manner!
drefs it to 16 fquare. '

To cut it fquare off to its exad: length, flick
a peg in the centre of each end, take a longi
fquare (that may be made of boards) lay it a-
long the corner, the fhort end againil; the endi
of the peg, mark on the fquare where the fliaft
is to be cut, and mark the fhaft by it at every |
corner line, from mark to mark ; then cut it
off to the lines, and it will be truly fquare. 1

?^'^^

Art. 12. To lay out the Mortifes for the Arms,

] FIND the centre of the fhaft at each end,

and flrike a circle, plum a line through the
centre at each end to be in the middle of two
of the fides ; make another fcribe fquare acrofs
it, divide the diftance equally between them,
fo as to divide the circle into 8 equal parts,
and flrike a line from each o£ them, from end
to end, in the middle of the fides ; meafure
from the top end about 3 feet, and mark for
the arm of the water-wheel, and the width of
the wheel, and make another mark. Take a
flraight edge 10 feet pole, ^udputthe endevei^

Of constructing Wheels. ^^

tvith the end of the fhaft, and mark on it even Art. 12.
mth the marks on the fhaft, and by thefe marks
neafure for the arm at every corner, markiog "
md hning all the way round. Then take the
ippermoil arms of each rim, and by them lay
3Ut the mortifes, about half an inch longer
than they are wide, which is to leave key room ;
fet the compalies a little more than half the
ihicknefs of the arms, and fet one foot in the
:entre line at the end of the mortife, ftriking
1 fcribe each way for to lay out the width by :
this done, lay out 2 more on the oppofite fide,
to complete the mortifes through the fhaft.
Lay out 2 more fquare acrofs the firft, one
quarter the width of the arm, longer inward,
towards the middle of the wheel. Take no-
tice which way the locks of the arms wind,
^vhether to right or left, and lay out the third
mortifes to fuit, elfe it will be a chance whether
they fuit or not : thefe mufl be half the width
of the arms, longer inwards.

The 4th fet of mortifes mufl: be 3-4 longer in-
wards than the v/idth of the arms : the mor-
tifes Ihould be made rather hollowino; than
rounding, that the arms may flip in eafily and
[land fair.

If there be 3 (which are called 6) arms to
j:he cog-wheel, but i of them can be put thro'
jihe fides of the fhaft fairly ; therefore, to lay
put the mortifes, divide the end of the fhaft a-
jiew, into but 6 equal parts, by ftriking a circle
pn each end ; and without altering the com-
pafles, ftep from one of the old lines, fix fteps
round the circle, and from thefe points flrike
i^halk lines, and they will be the middle of the
inortifes, which may be laid out as before.

36 Of coNSTi^ucTiNG Wheeis.

Art. 12.

minding which way the arms lock, and mak
ing 2 of the mortifes 1-3 longer than the widtl
of the arm, extending i on one fide, and th<
other on the other fide of the middle arm.

If there be but 2 (called 4) arms in the cog
wheel, (which will do where the number o
cogs do not exceed 60) they will pafs fairh
through the fides, whether the ihaft be 12 o;'
16 fided. One of thefe mnft be made one hali
longer than the width of the arms, to give
room to put the arm in.

■•■<^&<S»"—

Art. 13. To put in the Gudgeons i t

STRIKE a circle on the ends of the Ihaff
to let on the end bands ; make a circle alji
round 21-2 feet from each end, and faw ;jv
notch all romid half an inch deep. Lay out 4
fquare round the centres the lize of the gud:
geons, near the neck ; lay the gudgeons ftraigh;
on the ihaft, and fcribe round them for theii
mortifes ; let them down within an 1-8 of aij
inch of being in the centre. Drefs off the end,,
to fuit the bands ; make 3 keys of good feafonj
ed white oak, to fill each mortife above thti
gudgeons, to key them in, thofe next to th(,
gudgeons to be 3 1-4 inches deep at their innei
end, and i 1-2 inch at their outer end, th(
wedge or driving key 3 inches at the head
and 6 inches longer than the mortice, that ii
may be cut off if it batters in driving ; the pieccj
next the band fo wide as to rife half an inch a-
bove the Ihaft, when all are laid in. Theii
take out all the keys and put on the bands.

Of constructing WnEELSi 3^

arid make 8 or 1 2 iron wedges about 4 inches Art. 13.
long by 2 wide, 1-3 inch thick at the end, not
much tapered except half an inch at thefmall
end, on one fide next the wood ; drive them in
on each fide the gudgeon exceeding hard at a
proper diftance with a fet. Then put in the
keys again, and lay a piece of iron under each
band between it and the key 6 inches long,
half an inch thick in the middle, and tapering
off at the ends ; then greafe the keys well with
tallow and drive it well with a heavy fledge :
after this drive an iron wedge half an inch
from the two fides of each gudgeon 5 inches
long, near half an inch thick, and as wide as
the gudgeon.

Of Cog-wheels n Art. 14,

THE great face cog-wheels require 3 (cal-
led 6) arms, if the number of cogs exceed 54,
if lefs 4 will do. We find by the table, exam-
ple 43, that the cog-wheel muft have 69 cogs,
with 41-2 inches pitch, the diameter of its
pitch circle 8 feet 2 1-3 inches, and of its out-
fides 8 feet lo 1-3 inches. It requires 3 arms
9 feet long, 14 by 3 3-4 inches ; 12 cants 61-2
feet long, 16 by 4 inches. See it reprefented
plate V, fig. I .

To frame it, drefs and lock the arms toge-
ther, (as fig. 6) as direded art. 10, only mind
to leave 1-3 of each arm uncut, and to lock
them the right way to fuit the winding of the
mortifes in the fhaft, which is beft found by
putting a flrip of board in the middle mortife,

SS Of constructing Wheels. I

Art. 14. and, fuppofing it to be the arm, mark which
way it fhouid be cut, then apply the board to'
the arm and mark it. The arms being laid on
a truckle as directed art. 10, make a fweep
the fides diretSling to the centre, 2 feet from
the out end to fcribe by ; meafure on the
Ayeep half the diameter of the wheel, and by
it circle out the back edges of the cants, all of
one width in the middle ; drefs them, keeping!
the beft faces for the face fide of the wheel ;
make a circle on the arms 1-2 an inch larger;
than the diameter of the wheel, laying 3 of
the cants with their ends on the arms at thisi
circle at equal diftance apart. Lay the other|
three on the top of them, fo as to lap equally, |
fcribe them both under and top, and gauge all
for the laps from .the face fide ; drefs them out;
and lay them together, and joint them,
clofe ; drawpin them by an inch pin near
their infide corners : this makes one half
of the wheel ihewn fig. 5. Raife the centre
level with that half, flrike a circle near the out-
fide, and find the centre of one of the cants ;
then, with the fweep that defcribed the circle,;
ftep on the circle fix fleps, beginning at the,
middle of the cant, and thefe fteps v/iil ihewi
the middle of all the cants or places for thei
arms. Make a fcribe from the centre acrofs;
each; llrike another circle exa»5lly at the cor- i
ners, to place the corners of the next half by, '
and another about 21-2 inches farther out
than the infide of the wideft part of the cant,
to let the arms in by ; lay on three of the up- 1
per cants, the widelt part over the narrowefl;
part of the lower half, the iniide to be at thej
Doint where the corner circle crofles the cen-

Of constructing Wheels.

tre lines. Saw off the ends at the centre fcribes, ^"- ^'^•
and fit them down to their places, doing the
fame with the reft. Lay them all on and joint
their ends together ; draw-pin them to the
lovN^er half by inch pins, 2 inches from their in-
moft edges, and 9 inches from their ends.
Raife the centre level with the wheel ; plane a
a little of the rough off the face, and ftrike the
pitch circle and another4 inches infide for the
width of the face ; ftrike another vei y near it,
in which drive a chifel half an inch deep all
round, and ftrike lines wdth chalk in the middle
of the edge of the upper cants, and cut out of
the folid half of the upper cants, which raifes
the face ; divide the pitch circle into 69 equal
parts, 4 I -2 inches pitch, beginning and ending
in a joint ; ftrike two other circles each 2 1-2
inches from the pitch circle, and ftrike central
fcribes between the cogs, and where they crofs
the circles put in pins, as many as there is cogs,
half on each circle ; find the loweft part on the
face, and make the centre level with it ; look
acrofs in another place fquare with the firft,
and make it level with the centre alfo : then
make tlie face ftraightfrom thefe 4 places, and
it will be true.

Strike the pitch circle and divide it over a-
gain, and one of each fide of it, i inch diftance
for tiie cog mortifes ; fwcep the outfide of the
wheel and infide of the face, and two circles
3-4 of an inch from them, to drefs off the cor-
ners ; ftrike a circle of two inches diameter on
the centre of each cog, and Vv/ith the fweep
ftrike central fcribes at each fide of thefe cir-
cles for the cog-mortifes ; bore and mortife
half throuo;h ; turn the vv'heel, drefs and mor-

40 Of Sills, Spur-blocks, &c»

Art. r4. tifc the back fide, leaving the arms from undey
it ; ftrike a circle on the face edge of the arms,
equal in diameter to that ftruck on the face
of the half wheel, to let them in by ; faw in
fquare and take out 41-2 inches, and let themi
into the back of the wheel i 1-4 inch deep, i
and bore a hole i 1-2 inch into each arm, to I
pin it to the wheel. j

Strike a circle on the arms one inch lefsl
than the diameter of the ihaft, make a key 8!
inches long, i 1-2 thick, 31-4 at the but, and
21-2 inches at the top end, and by it lay out
the mortifes, two on each fide of the fhaft,
in each arm to hang the wheel by.

^j,j.^ jr, Qf Sms, Spiw-blocks^ and Head-plocks,

SEE a fide view of them in plates I, II, III,
and IV, and a top view of them with their
keys at the end of the Hiaft, plate VI. The
fills are generally 12 inches fquare. Lay them;
oh the wall as firm as poffible, and one 3 feel
farther out, on thefe lay the fpurs, which are;
5 feet long, 7 by 7 inches, 3 feet apart,!
notched and pinned to the fills ; on thefe are
fet the head-blocks, 14 by 12 inches, 5 feeil
long, let down with a dovetail Ihoulder be
tween the fpurs, to fupport keys to move it
endways, and let 2 inches into the fpurs witl
room for keys, to move it fideways, and hole
it to its place ; See fig. 33 and 34, plate VI
The ends of the fhaft are let 2 inches into th<
headblocks, to throw the weight more on tlw
centre.

Of Cogs. 41

Provide two ftones 5 or 6 inches fquare, ve- Art. ij.
ry hard and clear of grit, for the gudgeons to
run on, let them into the head-blocks, put the
cog-wheel into its place, and then put in the
(haft on the head-blocks in its place.

Put in the cog-wheel arm, lock them to-
gether and pin the wheel to them ; then hang
the wheel lirft by the keys, to make it truly
round, and then by fide wedges, to make it
true in face ; turn the wheel and make two
circles one on each fide of the cog-mortifes,
half an inch from them, fo that the head of
the cogs may (land between them equally.

— "^<^oQo^B>>"

Of Cogs ; the heft Time for cutting and Way of hxX., 16,
feafoning them.

THEY Ihould be cut 14 inches long, 31-4
inches fquare, when the fap runs at its fulleil,
which fhould be done at leaft a year before
they are ufed, that they may dry without
cracking. If either hickory or whiteoak is
cut v/hen the bark is fet, they will worm-eat,
and if dryed haftily will crack ; to prevent
which boil them and dry them flowly, or foak
them in water, a year, (20 years in mud and
water would not hurt them ;) when they are
taken out they fhould be put in a hay -mow
under the hay, which, when foddered away
they will dry v/ithout cracking ; but this often
takes too long time. I have difcovered the
following method of drying them in a few
days without cracking : I have a malt-kiln

42 Of Cogs. i

Art. i6. with a floor of laths two inches apart. I fhank^
the cogs, hang them Ihank downwards, be^
tween the laths, cover them with the hair-
cloth, make a wood fire and the fmoke pre-:
ferves them from cracking. Some dry t?hem
in an oven which ruins them. Boards, planks,
or fcantling are beft dried in a kiln, covered i
fo as to keep the fmoke amongft them.

Art. 17. Of Jhanking, putting in^ and dreffmg off Cogs,

STRAIGHTEN one of the heart fides for
the fhank, make a pattern the head 4, and
Ihank 10 inches long, and 2 inches wide at
the head, i 3-4 at the point ; lay it on the
cog, fcribe the Ihank and llioulders for the
head, faw in and drefs off the fides ; make an-
other pattern of the fhank, without the head,;
to fcribe the fides and drefs off the backs by,
laying it even with the face, wdiich is to have]
no fhoulder ; take great care in dreffmg them
off, that the axe does not flrike the fnoulder,
if it does it v;ill crack there in drying (if they
be green) ; fit and drive them in the mortifes
exceeding tight, with their fhoulders foremofli
when at work. When the cogs are all in, fix
two pieces of fcantling for refls, to fcribe the
cogs by, one acrofs tiie cog-pit near the cogs,'
another in front of them, fix them firm. Hold
a pointed tool on the reft, and fcribe for the ;
length of the cogs by turning the wheel, and|
faw them off 3 1-2 inches long; thenmovej
the refl clofe to them, and fix it firm; fmdi
.the pitch circle on the end of the cogs, and by '

turning the wheel defcribe it there.

Of the little Cog-wheel and Shaft. 43

Defcribe another 1-4 of an inch outfidcArt. 17,
thereof, for to fet the compafs in to defcribe
the face of the cogs by, and another at each
fide of the cogs to drefs them to their width ;
then pitch the cogs by dividing them equally,
fo that in ftepping round the compafles may
end in the point where they began ; defcribe
a circle in fome particular place with the
pitch that it may not be loft ; thefe points
mull: be as near as poffible, of a proper dif-
tance for the centre from the back of the
cogs ; find the cog that this point comes near-
eft to the back, and fet the compaffes from
that point to the back of the cog, and with
this diftance fet off the backs of all the cogs
equally, on the circle 1-4 of an inch outlide of
the pitch circle, and from thefe points laft
made, fet off the thicknefs of the cogs, which
Ihould be 2 1-8 inches in this cafe.

Then defcribe the face and back of the cogs
by fetting the compaffes in the hindmoft point
of one cog, and fweeping over the foremoft
point of another for the face, and in the fore-
moft point of one, fv/eeping over the hindmoft
of the other, for the back part ; drefs them off
on all fides, tapering about 1-8 of an inch in an
inch diftance, try them by a gauge to make
them all alike, take a little of the corners off,
and they are finifhed.

Of the little Cog-wheel and Shaft, Art. iS,

THE procefs of making this is fimilar to
that of the big cog-wheel. Its dimenftons we
find by the table, and the fame example 43, to

44 Of WallOwers AND Trundles.

Art. IS. be 52 cogs, 4 I -4 pitch. Diameter of pitch cir-
cle 5 feet 10 1-3 inches, and from out to out (
feet 6 inches.

It requires 2 arms 6feet 6 inches long, 1 1 b}i
31-4 inches ; 8 cants 5 feet 6 inches, 17 by ;
1-2 inches. See it plate V, fig. 4.

Oftbe Shaft. I

Drefs it 8 feet long, 14 by i4fquare, and de^
fcribe a circle on each end 14 inches diameter i
ftrike two lines through the centre parallel t(
the fides and divide the quarters into 4 equa
parts each ; ftrike lines acrofs the centre a,
each part at the end of thefe lines ; ftrike chall!
lines from end to end to hew off the corners by
and it will be 8 fquare j lay out the mortifes fo;
the arms, put on the bands, and put in the gudi
geons, as with the big fhaft.

Art. 19. DireB'ions for making Wdllowers and I'r undies \

BY example 43 in the table, the wallowe
is to have 26 rounds 41-2 pitch. Diameter oj
its pitch circle is 3 feet 1 1-4 inch, and 3 fee|
41-4 inches from outfides : fee fig. 3 plate V. Iti
heads Ihould be 3 1-2 inches thick, dowelei
truly together, or made i^ouble with plan]
croffing other. Make the bands 3 inches widci
1 -6 of an inch thick evenly drawn ; the headi
muft be made to fuit the bands, by fetting th\
compalTes fo that they will ftep round the infidj
of the band in 6 fteps ; with this diftance fwee]!

Of hanging Wheels. 45

the head, allowing about ^ of an inch outfide Art. 19.
in drelling to make fuch a large band tight.
I Make them hot alike all round with a chip lire,
• which fvvells the iron ; put them on the head
while hot, and cool them with water to keep
' them from burning the wood too much, but
(not too faft, left they fnap : the fame for hoop-
ing all kinds of heads.

Drefs the head fair after banded, and ftrike

: the pitch circle and divide it by the fame pitch

of the cogs ; bore the holes for the rounds with

■an auger at leaft 11-2 inch; make the rounds

';of the beft wood 2^ inches diameter, and i r

'inches between the Ihoulders, the tenons 4

..'inches, to fit the holes loofely until within one

dnch of the fhoulder, then drive tight. Make

rthe mortifes for the fhaft in the heads, with

motches for the keys to hang it by. When the

rounds are all drove in to the fhoulders, obferve

vWietlier they ftand ftraight, if not, they may be

fet fair by putting the wedges neareft to one

fide of the tenon, fo that the ilrongeft part

may incline to draw them ftraight : this fhould

be done wdth both heads.

Of fixing ths Hsad-k locks and hanging the TVheeb, Art. 20'.

THE head-blocks for the waliower fhaft,
are flievvn la plate VI. Number 19 is one cal-
led a fjDur, 6 feet long and 15 inches deep,
one end of which at 19 is let one inch into the
top of the hufk-fill, which fill is i 1-2 inch above
the floor, the other end tenoned ftrongly into

Of sinking the Balance-ryne.

ailrong poft 14 by 14 inches, 12 or 14 feet
loner, ilandiiig near the cog-wheel on a fill in
the bottom of the cog-pit ; the top is tenoned
into the huik-plank ; thefe are called the tom-
kin pods. The other head-blocks appears at
20 and 28. In thefe large head-blocks thereis
fmall ones let in, that are 2 feet long and 6
inches fquare, with a ftone in each for the gud-
o-eons to run on. That one In the fpur 19 is
made to flide, to put the wallower out and in
crear by a lever fere wed to its fide.
bnluay the centre of the little fhaft level withi
the big one, fo as to put the wallower to gear
2-3 the thicknefs of the rounds deep into the
cocr-wheel ; put the fhaft into its place and
hang the wallower, and gauge the rounds to
equal diflance where the cogs take. Hang the
cog-wheel, put m the cogs, make the trundle
as directed for the wallower. See plate V fig. 4.

DireClions for putting in the Balance -Kyne^

LAY it in the eye of the ftone, and fix it
truly in the centre ; to do which make a
fweep by putting a long pin through the end
toreach into and fit the pivothole in the balance-
ryne, by repeated trials on the oppofite fides
fix it in the centre ; then make a particular
mark on the fweep and others to fuit it on the
ftone, fcribe round the horns, and with picks
and chifcls fmk the mortifes to their proper
depth, trying by the fweep if it be in the cea-

Op sinking the Balance-ryne. 47

tre, by the particular marks made for the pur- Art. 21.
pofe. Put in the fpindle with the foot up-
wards and the driver on in its place, while one
holds it plum. Set the driver over two of the
horns, if it has four, but between them if it
has but two. When the neck is exa6tly in the
centre of the ftone, fcribe round the horns of
the driver, and let it into the ftone, nearly to
the balance, if it has four horns. Put the top
of the fpindle in the pivot-hole to try whether
the mortifes lets it down freely on both fides.
Make a tram to fet the fpindle fquare by,
^s follows : take a piece of board, cut 4 notch
in one fide, at one end, and hang it on the
top of the fpindle, by a little peg put in the
fhoulder of the notch, to go in the hole in the
foot to keep it on, let the other end reach
down to the edge of the ftone, take another
piece, circle out one end to fit the fpindle
neck, and make the other ead faft to the low-
er end of the hanging piece near the ftone, fo
as to play round level with the face of the
ftone, refting on the centre-hole in the foot,
and againft the neck, put a bit of quill through
! the end of the level piece, that will touch the
; edge of the ftone as it plays round. Make
little wedge and drive them in behind the
! horns of the driver, to keep both ends at once
j clofe to the fides of the mortifes they bear
againft when at work, keeping the pivot or
cock-head in. its hole in the balance, try the
triam gently round, and mark where the quill
j touches the itone firft-, aiicl drefs off the bear-
|ing fides of the mortifes for the driver until it
i will touch equally all round, giving the driver
I liberty to move endways and fidev\^ays to let

4^ . Of bridging the Spindle. •

Art. 21. the ftone rock an inch any way. The ryne and-
driver muft be funk 3-4 of an inch below the
face of the ftone. Then hang the trundle firmly
and truly on the fpindle, put it in its place;
to gear in the little cog-wheel.

Art. 22. To Bridge the Spindle,

MAKE a little tram of a piece of lath, 3
inches wide at one end, and i inch at the
other, make a mortife in the wide end, and
put it on the cock-head, and a piece of quill in
the fmall end, to play round the face of the
ftone : then, while one turns the trundle, an-'
other obferves where the quill touches firft,
and alters the keys of the bridge-tree, driv-
ing the fpindle-foot towards the part the
quill touches, until it touches equally all round.
Cafe the ftone neatly round within 2 inches of
the face.

Art. 23. Of the Grain and Lightcr-fta-ff'. j;

I
MAKE a crain for taking up and putting!
down the ftone, with a fere w and bale. See itj
reprefented in Evans's part, pi. XL fig. 2 and!
3. Set the poft out of the v/ ay as much as
poiTible, let it be 9 by 6 inches in the middle,
the arm 9 by 6, brace 6 by 4, make ^ hole
plum over the fpindle, for the fcrew, put an'
iron wafher on the arm under the female
fcrew, nail it faft, the fcrev7 fhould be abovej
half the diameter of the ftone, in the vforin,

Of the Grain and Ligkter-staff. 49

: and 10 inches beiow it, tlie bale to touch only Art. 23.
at the ends to give the ftone Uberty to turn,
I the pins to be 7 inches long, i 1-8 thick, the
I bale to be 2 1-2 inches wide in the middle,
and 13-4 an inch thick at the end : all of
the beft iron, for if either of them break the
danger would be great. The holes in the
! ftone fliould be nearefl the upper fide of it.
Raife the runner by the crane, Icrew and bale,
turn it and lay it down, with the horns of the
driving-ryne in their right places, as marked,
it being down, as appears in pi. IX. fig. 9.
Make the lighter ilaff C C to raife and lower
the ftone in grinding, about 6 feet long, 31-2
by 21-2 inches at the large end, and 2 inches
fquare at the fmall end, with a knob on the
upper fide. Make a m or tife through the butt
end for the bray-iron to pafs through, which
goes into a mortife 4 inches deep in the end.
of the bray at b, and faftened with a pin ; it
may be 2 inches wide, i -2 an inch thick, a plain
bar with one hole at the lower end, and 5 or 6
at the upper end, fet in a ftaggering poiition.
This lighter is fixed in front of the meal-beam,
at a proper height to be handy to raife or lower
atpleafure ; a weight of 41b. is hung to the end
of it by a ftrap, that laps two or three times
round, and the other end faftened to the poft
below, that keeps it in its place. Play the
lighter up and dovyn, and obferve whether the
ftone rifes and fails flat on the bed-ftone, if it
does, draw a little water, and let the ftone
move gently round, then fee that all things be
right, and draw a little mere v/ater, let the
ftone run at a middling rate, and grind the
faces a few minutes.

Art, 24. Dlrediom for making a Hoop for the Mill-Stan^,

TAKE a white pine or poplar board, 8 inch^
es longer than will go round the flone, and z
inches wider than the top of the ftone is high,
drefs it fmooth, and gauge it one inch thick,
run a gauge-mark 1-6 of an inch from the
putfide, divide the length into 52 parts, and
law as many faw-gates fquare acrofs the in-
fide to the gauge-line. Take a board of equal
width, I foot long, nail one half of it on the
outfide at one end of the hoop, lay it in water
^ day or two to foak, or fprinkle the outfidej
well an hour or two with hot water. Ben4
it round fo that the ends meet, and nail the
Other end to the fhort board, put flicks acrofs
infide in every direiHiion to prefs out the partsl
that bend leaft, and make it truly round*]
Make a cover for the hoop fuch as is reprefent^
ed in plate VII, fig. 23, 8 fquare infide, and i
inch outfide the hoop. It confifts of 8 piecesi
lapped over one another, the black lines fhew-
ing the joints as they appear when made, thei
dotted lines the under parts of the laps. De-
fcribe it on the floor, and inake a pattern to
make all the refl by ; drefs all the laps, fit and
nail them together by the circle on the floor,
and then nail it on the hoop ; put the hoop over
the ftone and fcribe it to fit the floor in its
place.

Of facing Stones. 5^

Of grinding Sand to Face the Stones, Art. 2 5.

LAY boards over the hoop to keep the duft
from flying, and take a bulhel or two of dry,
clean, fharp fand, team it gently in the eye,
while the ftonesmove at a moderate rate, con-
tinuing to grind for an hour or two ; then take
up the flone, fweep them clean, and pick the
fmoothefl hardeft places, and lay the ft one
down again, and grind more fand as before,
turning off the back (if it be a bur) taking
great care that the chifel does not catch;
take up the ftone again, and make a red
ftaff, in length the diameter of the ftone,
3 by 2 1-2 inches, paint it with red paint and
water, and rub it over the face of the ftones in
all dirediions, the red will be left on the higheft
[and hardeft parts, which muft be pecked down,
making the bed-ftone perfectly plain, and the
jrunner a little concave about 1-6 of an inch at
lihe eye, and leffening gradually to about 8
inches from the fkirt. If they be clofe and
liave much face they need not touch or flour
jb far, as if they are open and have but little
j-ace : thofe things are left to the judgment
i)f the mill-wright and miller.

I Dire^ions for laying Qitt the Furrows in the ^j.^, 26.
I ftones, ^T.

r| IF they be 5 feet diameter, divide the fkirt
[iito 16 equal parts, called quarters, if 6 feet,
^to 18, if 7 feet, into 20 quarters. Make two
b'ips of board, one an inch, and the other 2

5^ Of furrowing Stones.

Art. 26.

inches wide ; ftand with your face to the eye,'
and if the {lone turns to the right when at
work, lay the ftrip at one of the quarter divifi-
ons, and the other at the left hand fide clofe toi
the eye, and mark with a fpike flated for a
mafter furroW' ;'.'they all are laid out the fame;
"Way in both ftones, for when their faces are to-
gether the furrovvAS fhould crofs other like fhearsi
in the beft pofition for cutting cloth. Then,;
having not iefs than 6 good picks, proceed tc'
pick out all the mafler furrows^ making the
edge next the Ikirt and the other end next the
eye the deepeft, the feather edge not half fc
deep as the back.

•"When all the mafler furrows are picked!
btit, lay the broad flrip next to the feather
edges of all the furrows, and mark the head
lands of the fliort furrows, then lay the fame
flrip next the back edges? and mark for tht
lands, and lay the narrow flrip, and mark foi
the furrow's, and fo on mark out all the landf,
and furrows, minding not to crofs the head
lands, but leaving it between the mafler fur-j
rows and the fhort ones of each quarter. But i:j
they be clofe country flones, lay out both fut-'j
rows and land with the narrow flrip.

The neck of the fpindle mufl not be wedg-
ed too tight elfe it will burn loofe ; bridge th(
Ipindle again ; put a collar round the fpindle
neck, but under it put a piece of an old flock-;
lag, with tallow roiled up in it, about a fin-
ger thick, tack it clofe round the neck ; put
a piece of fliff leather about 6 inches diametei
on the cock-head under the driver, to turr
with the fpindle and drive off the grain, &c
from the neck ; greafe the neck with tallow
every time the flone is up.

Of the Hopper, Shoe and Feeder; 53

Lay the ftoile down and turn off the back Art. 26.
fmooth, and grind more fand. Stop the mill ;
raiie the Hone a little, and balance it truly
with weight laid on the lighted fide. Take
lead equal to tiiis weight, melt it, and run it
into a hole made in the fame place in the
piaiiler, largell at bottom to keep it in, fill the
hole with plaifter : take up the runner again,
try the ftaff over them, and if in good face
give them a nice dreffing, and lay them down
to grind wheat.

- — «^'<^«&'y

Directions for making a Hopper, Shoe and Feeder ^^ Art, 27.

THE dimenfion of the hopper of a com-
rnon mill is 4 feet at the top, and 2 feet deep,
the hole in the bottom 3 inches fquare, with a
Aiding gate in the bottom of the front, to lef-
fen it at pleafure : the flioe 10 inches long,
and 5 wide in the bottom, of good found oak.
The fide 7 or 8 inches deep at the hinder end,
3 inches at the foremoft end, 6 inches longer
than the bottom at the fore end, flanting more
than the hopper behind, fo that it may have li-
berty tohang down 3 or 4 inches at the fore end,
v/hich is hung by a (Irap, called the feeding-
firing, paffing over the fore end of the hop-
per-frame, and lapping round a pin in front of
the ir.eal-beam, that w^ili turn by the hand,
called the feeding-fcrew.

The feeder is a piece of w-ood turned in a
lathe, about 20 inches long, 3 inches diameter
in the middle agalnil the ihoe, tapered off to
I 1-2 inches at the top ; the lov/er end is
banded and a forked iron drove in it, that

Of Bolting-chests AND Reels. j

[
fpans over the ryne fitting into notches made
on each fide, to receive it right above the \
fplndle, and turns with it ; the upper end run-
ning in a hole in a piece acrofs the hopper- i
frame. In the larp-e part next the fhoe are i
fet 6 iron knockers, 7 inches long, half an
inch diameter, with a tang at each end, ^
turned fquare to drive into the wood, thefe i_;_
knock againft, and fhake the (hoe, and there^
by (hake in the grain regularly.

Then put grain into the hopper, draw v/a-l
tcr on the mill, regulate the feed by turning
the feed-fcrew, until the ftream falling into
the eye of the Hone, is proportioned to the
fize thereof, or the power of the mill. Here
ends the mill-wrights vv^ork, with refped; to
grinding, and the miller takes charge thereof.

Of Bc'lting-chejls- and Ree/f.

BOLTING cheits and reels are of dif-
ferent lengths, according to the ufe they are
for. Common country chefts (a top view of
one of which is fhewn pi. VII. fig. 9.) arel
commonly about 10 feet long, 3 feet wide,
and 7 feet 4 inches high, with a poft in each^
corner, the bottom 2 feet from the floor, with'
a board 18 inches wide, fet flanting in the
back fide, to caft the meal forward in the
cheft, to make it eafily taken up ; the door!
of the whole length of the cheft, and two feet^
wide, the bottom fide board below the doori
16 inches wide.

Of BoLTiNG-CMESTS AND Reels.

The fh,aft of the reel equal in length with Art. 28.
the cheft,4 inches diameter, 6 fquare,two bands
on each end, 31-4 and 3 3-4 diameter, gud-
geons 13 inches long, 7-8 of an inch diameter;
8 inches jn the ihaft, round 2 1-2 inches at
the neck, with a tenon for a focket or handle,
fix ribs I 1-2 inch deep, i 1-8 inch thick, half
an inch fhorter at the tail, and i 1-2 inch at
the head, than the lliaft, to leave room for
the meal to be fpouted in at the head, and the
bran to fall at the taU ; four fets of arms, that
is, 12 of them, i 1-2 inch wide, and 5-8 thick.
, The diameter of the reel from out to out of
the ribs, is one third part of the double width
pf the cloth. A round wheel of inch boards,
and diameter equal to the outfide of the ribs,
41-2 inches wide, meafuring from the outfide
towards the centre, (which is taken out) is to
be framed to the head of the reel, to keep the
meal from falling out at the head unbolted.
Put a hoop 4 1-2 inches wide, and 1-4 thick,
round the tail, to faften the cloth to. The
cloth is fewed two widths of it together, to
reach round the reel ; putting a ftrip of ftrong
linen y inches wide at the head, and 5 inches
at the tail of the cloth, to faflen it to the reel
by. Paiie a ilrip of linen, foft paper, or fham-
my leather (which is the bed) 11-2 inch wide
on each rib, to keep the cloth from freting.
Then put the cloth on the reel tight, and few
Qr nail it to the tail and ftretch it length ways
as hard as it will bear, nailing it to the head.

N. B. 6 yards of cloth covers a 10 feet reel.

Bolting reels for merchant are generally
longer than for country work, every part Oiould
be ftronger in proportion as necefTarVc They

56 Of setting Bolts to go Isy Water, j

Art. 28. are beft when made to fuit the wide cloths.
The focket gudgeons at the head ftiould be
much ftf onger, they being apt to wear out and
troublefome to repair.

The bolting hopper is made through tlie

floor above the cheft, 12 inches fquare at thei

upper and 10 inches at the lower end; the

foremoft fide 5 inches and the back fide y;

inches from the top of the cheft.

The fhoe 2 feet long at the bottom of the fide
pieces, flaiiting %o fuit the hopper at the hinder
end, fet 4 inches higher at the hinder than the
fore end, the bottom 17 inches long and iqi
inches wide. There lliould be a bow of ironl
riveted to the fore end to reft on the top of
the knocking wheel, fixed on the focket gud-l
geon at the head of the cheft, which is 10 incliT
es diameter, 2 inches thick, with 6 half rounds
cut out of its circumference by way of knock-
ers, toftrike againft the bow, and lift the flioe
3-4 of an inch every ftroke to Ihake in th^
meal. ;

Art. 29. Of fet ting Bolts to go by Water »

THE bolting reels are fet to go by water as
follows :

Make a bridge 6 by 4 inches, and 4 inchei
longer than the diftance of the tomkin pofts,.
defcribed art, 20 ; fet it between them on reft
faftenedinto them, 10 inches below the cogso:
the cog-wheel, and the centre of it half the di
ameter of the fpur-wheel in front of them
on this bridge is fet the ftep gudgeon, of an up

op MAKING Bolting Wheels. 57

right Ihaft, with a fpur-wheel of 16 or 18 cogs ^^'- ^9-

to gear into the cog-wheel. Fix a head-block

to the joifts of the 3rd floor for the upper

end of this fhaft, put the wheel 28, plate V lion

it ; hang another head-block to the joiils of

the 2nd floor near the corner of the mill at 6,

for the ftep of the fliort upright fliaft that is to

be fixed there, to turn the reels i and 9. Hang

another head-block to the joifts of the 3rd

floor for the upper end of the laid Ihort upright,

and fix alfo head-blocks for the fliort Ihaft at

ithe head of the reels, fo that the centres of all

ithefe fliafts will meet. Theq fix a hanging

ipoft in the corner 5, for the gudgeon of the

I long horizontal fliaft 27 — 5 to run in. After

Uhe head-blocks are all fixed, thenmeafure the

length of each fnaft, and make them as fol-

'lows, viz.

The upright fliaft 51-2 inches for common
mills, but if for merchant work, with Evans's
elevators, &c. added, make it larger 6 or 7
inches ; the horizontal fliaft 27 — 5 and all the
others 5 inches diameter. Put a focket-gud-
geon in the middle of the long fliafts to keep
them fteady ; make them 8 or 1 6 fquare, except
at the end where the wheels are hung, where
they muft be 4 fquare. Band their ends, put
in the gudgeons, put them in their proper plac-
es in the head-blocks, to mark where the
wheels are to be put on them.

Of making BokingWheels, Art. qo.

MAKE the fpur-wheel for the firft upright
>vith a 4 1-2 inch plank, the pitch of the cogs

§B Of making Bolting Wheels,

Art. 30. the fame as the cog-wlieel, into which it is to
work, put two bands 3-4 of an inch wide, onpj
on each fide of the cogs, and a rivet betweepi
eg.ch cog to keep the wheel from fpUting.

To proportion the cogs in the wheels to giyp
tlie bolts the right motion,, the common way,
is —

Hang the ipur- wheel and fet the flqnes to
grind with a proper motion, and count the re-
volutions of the upright Ihaft in a minute, and
compare its revolutions with the revolutions
that a bolt fliould have, which is about 36 revor
lutions a minute. If the upright goes 1-6 more,
put 1-6 lefs in the firft driving-wheel thap inj
the leader, fuppofe 15 in the driver then 18 in
the leader ; but if their dilFerence be mqi^^ (fay j
one half) ther^ mud be a difference in the next
two wheels ; obferving, that if the motion of
\ the upright ftiaft be greater than the bolt Ihould |

be, then the driving-wheel rauft be proportion? |
ably lefs than the leader ; but if it be flower,
then the driver muft be greater in proportion, i
The common fize of bolting wheels is from 14.
to 20 cogs ; if lefs thar^ 14 the head-blockij
will be too near the fhafts,

Common bolting wheels Ihould be made of
plank at leaft 3 inches thick, well feafoned,
and are bed to be as wide as the diameter of
the wheel, and banded with bands near as
wide as the thicknefs of the wheel, made ge-r
nerally of rolled iron, about 1-8 of an inch
thick. Some make them of 2 inch plank, crof-
fed and no bands : but this proves no faving, as
they are apt to go to pieces in a few years.
For hooping wheels fee art. 19, and for find-
ing the diameter of the pitch circle fee art. 9. j

Of Rolling-screens. 59

The wheels are generally 2 inches more in di- Art. 30.
ametei' than the pitch circle if banded ; but if
not, they fliould be more. The pitch or dif-
tance of the cogs are different, if to turn i or
2 bolts 21-2 inches, but if more, 2 3-4 : but if
much heavy work, they Ihould be not lefs than
5 inches. Their cogs are half the pitch in
thicknefs, the fhank to drive tight in an inch
iuger hole.

When the mortifes are made for the ihafts
m the head, and notches for the keys to hang
ithem, drive the cogs in and pin their Ihanks at
back fide, and cut them off half an inch from
i:he wheel*

Hang^ie' Wheels on the ftiafts fo that they

livill g^ffa proper depth, about 2-3 the thick-

jiefs of the cogs ; drefs all the cogs to equal

■iiftance by a gauge ; then put the ftiafts in

.heir places, the wheels gearing properly, and

he head-blocks all fecure, fet them in moti-

)n by water. Bolting reels fliould turn to drop

:he meal on the back fide of the cheft, as it

A^ill then hold more, and will not caft out the

neal when the door is opened.

•<^S"/^<^>"

Of Rollmg-fcreens,

THESE are circular fieves moved by water,
Lod are particularly ufeful in cleaning wheat
or merchant work. They are of different
onflruftions.

ill. Thofe of on$ coat of wire v,dth a Ijcrew
n them.

i 2nd. Thofe of two coats, the inner one nail-
i'd to 6 ribs, the outer oae having- a fcrew ber
'ween it and the inner one. i

Art.

4q Qf Rc).L|,ING-SCREENS.

Art. 31. SJ^d. Thofe of a fingle coat and no fcreWi

The firft kind anfwers well in fonae, but not'
in all eafes, becaufe they muft turn a certain'
number of times before the wheat can get out^
Hpd the grain has not fo good an opportunity
of leparatingj there being nothing to change-:
its pofition, it floats a confiderable way with
the fame grains uppermoft.

The double kind are better becaufe they
may be {horter and take up lefs room ; an^
worfe, for being more difficult to be kept clean.i

The 3rd kind has this advantage ; we can;
keep the grain in it a longer or ihorter time at
pleafure, by raifmg or lowering the tail end^j
and is alfo toifed about more ; but they muft
be longer* They are generally 9 or^R feet;
* long, 2 feet 4 inches diameter, if to clean for 2

or 3 pair of ftones, but if for more, they ihould
be larger accordingly : will clean for from i|
to 6 pair of flones. They are made 6 fquare,:
with 6 ribs, which lie flatwife, the outer cor-
ners talien off to leave the edge 1-4 of an inch
thick ; the inner corners fo as to bring it near-
ly to lliarp edges, the wire work nailed oii
v/ith 14 ounce tacks.

They are generally moved by the fame upi
right iliaft that moves the bolts, by a wheei
on its upper end with two fets of cogs : thofe
that (Irike downwards crearlno; into a whceJi
ilriking upwards that turns a laying lliaftJ
with two pulleys on the other end, one of 24'
inches diameter, to turn a fan with quick md-
tion^the other 8inches,over which paffes a ftraj:
; to a pulley 24 inches diameter, on the gudgeoi
of the rolling fcreen, to reduce its motion td
about 15 revolutions in a m/niiite. See pi. VII
fig. 23. This may do for mills in tiie fma!

Of Fans» 6 1

way, but where they are m perfection for mer- Art. 31.
chant-work, with elevators, <Scc. and have to
clean wheat for 2, 3 or 4 pair of ilones, they
fhould be moved by cogs.

Of Fans, Art. 32.

TKE Dutch fan is a machine of great ufe
: r blowing the dull: and other light ftuff from
ciiuong the wheat ; there are various forts of
them ; thofe that are only for blowing the
w.ieat, as it frJls from the rolling-fcreen, are
Igenerally about 15 inches long, and 14 inches ,
jvvide in the w4ng5, and have no riddle or #'

Icreen in them.

To give it motion, put a pulley 7 inches
[diameter on its axle for a band to run on, from
ithe pulley on the fnaft that moves the fcreen
or 24 inches diameter, to give it a fwift mo-
(tion, when the band is flack it flips a little
Ion the fmall pulley, and the motion is flow ; but
jwhen tight, the motion is quicker ; by this the
iblafl: is regulated.

Some ufe Dutch fans complete, with riddle
and fcreen under the rolling fcreen for mer-
jchant-work, and again ufe the fan alone for
country- work.

The v/ino;s of thofe, which are the common
Farm-crs Vv^ind-mills or fans, are 18 inches long,
and 20 inches wide, but are fet in motion with
a pulley inflead of a cog-wheel and wallower.

Of the Shaking Sieve.

x\rt. 33. Of the Shakmg Sieve j

THEY are of confiderable ufe in country};
milis, to fift Indian meal, feparating it into fe-|
veral degrees of finenefs if required, and takei
the hulls out of buckwheat meal, that are aptjj
" to cut the bolting-cloth, and the duft out of

the grain, if rubbed before ground ; and are
fometimes ufed to clean wheat or fcreenings
inftead of rolling fcreens.

If they are for fifting meal they are 3 feet
6 inches long, 9 inches wide, 3 1-2 inches
deep ; fee it pi. VL li^. 16. The wire-
work is 3 feet long, 8 inches wide ; acrofs the
bottom of the tail end is a board 6 inches wide,]
to the top of which the wire is tacked, and!
then this board and wire tacked to the bottom
of the frame, leaving an opening at the tail
end for the bran to fall into the box 17, the. I
meal falling into the meal-trough 15, the
head-piece ihould be llrong to hold the iron!
bow at 15, through w^hich paiTes the lever that;
fliakes the fieve, in the following manner :!
Take two pieces of hard wood 15 inches long,:
and as wide as the fpindle, and fo thick thati
when one is put on each fide juft above the|
trundle, it will make it i 1-2 inch thicker than:
the fpindle is v/ide. The corners of thefe are';
taken off to a half round, and they are tied toil
the fpindle with a fmaii ftrong cord. Thefeii
are for to Itrike againft the lever that works'
on a pin near its centre, which is faftened tojj
the fieve, and fliakes it as the trundle goeslj
round; fee it reprefented pi. VI. Thisleverjt
muil always be put to the contrary fide of the

Of the use of draughting Mills, tl-c. . 63

fpindle, that it is of the meal-fpout, elfe it Art. 33.
will draw the meal to the upper end of the
fieve : there muil be a fpring fixed to the fieve
to draw it forward as often as it is driven
back. It mult hang on (traps and be fixed fo
as to be eafily fet^ to any defcent required, by
means of a roller inform of the feeding fcrew,
only longer, round which the ilrap winds.

Having now given ciire6tions for making
and putting to work, all the machinery of one
of the completelt of the old fafliioned grift-
'mills, that may do merchant-work inthefmall
way, as reprefented by plates VI. VII. VIII.
IX. but not to near fo much advantage as
with the late and new improvements, which
^re fliewn by plate X.

•«s>c^<^>- —

Gf the Ufe of draughting Mills, &c. Art. 34.

PERHAPS fome are of opinion that
draughts are ufelefs pictures of things, ferving
only to pleafe the fancy. This is not what
I intend by them ; but to give tlie reader true
ideas of the m.achines, &c. defciibed, or to be
made. They are al] drawn on a finall fcale of
1-8 of an inch for a foot, in order to fuit the
[fize of the book, except plate V . which is 1 -4 /

iofan inch for afoot, and this fcale I recom- /

jmend, as moPc buildings wall come on the fize /

[of a common llieet of paper.
I N. B. Plate XII. was made after the above
jdire^tions, and has its explanations to fuit it.
1 The great ufe of draughting mills, &c. to
ibuild by, is by conveying our ideas more

6.% Of planning and draughting Mills,

Art. ^4- plain, than is poilible to be done by writing of I
words, whicii may be niifconftrued or forgot-r
ten ; but a draught, well drawn, {peaks for it-
felf, when once underitood by the artift ; who,
by applying his dividers to the draught and to
the Icale, finds the length, breadth and height
of the building, or the dimenfions of any piece
of timber, and its place in the buildings &c.

By the draught, the bills of Icantling,!
boards, rafters, laths, lliingles, ccc. &c. arq
known and made out ; it ihould iliew every
w^heel, Ihaft, and machine, and their places,!
By it we can find whether the houfe is fuffici?
ent to contain all the works that are neceffary
to carry on the bufmefs ; the builder or owii-'
er underftands what he is about, and carries oii
cheerfully without error ; it dired:s the m.afoii
v/here to put the v^indows, doors, navel-holes^
the inner Vv^alls, &c. whereas, if there be nq
draught every thing goes on, as it were, ir!
the dark ; much time is loft and errors -ar^
committed to the lofs of many pounds. I have
heard a man fay, he believed his mill was
500I. better, by having empio3^ed an experiv
enced artift, to draw hira a draught to build ii
by. And I know by experience the great util-
ity of them. Every mafter builder ought;
at ieaft, to underftand them. -

Art, 35. DircB'ions for planning and draughting Mills.

ift. If it be a new feat, view the grounc
^ where the dam is to be, and where the mill

houfe is to ftand^ and determdne on the heigh

Of planning and draughting Mills.

ot the top of the water m the head-race where Art. 35.
i it is taken out of the ftream ; and level from it
j for the lower fide of the race down to the feat
I of the mill-houfe, and mark the level of the
water in the dam there.

, 2nd. Begin where the tail-race is to empty
jnto the ftream, and level from the top of the
water upto the mill-feat, noticing the depth
thereof in places as you pafs along, which
vvillbe of ufe in digging it out.

Then iindthe total fall, allowing i inch to a
j-odfor fall in the races, but if they are very
wide lefs will do. Then, fuppofmg the fall to
be 2 1 feet 9 inches, which is fufficient for an
overfhot mill, and the ilreara too light for an
imderfiiot, confider well what fize ftone will
iuit, for I do not recommend a large ftone to
a weak, nor a fmall one to a llroiig (Iream.
I have propofed ftones 4 feet diameter for
light, and 4,6 for middling, and 5 or 5 feet 6
inches diameter for heavy flreams. Snppofe
yoQ determine on ftones 4 feet, then look in-
table I, (which is for fliones of that fize) column
2, for the fall that is neareft 2 i feet 9 inches,
your fall, and you find it in the 7th example.
Column 3 contains the head of water over the
v/heel 3 feet ; 4th, the diameter of the wheel
1 8 feet; 5th, its v/idth, 2 feet 2 inches, &c.
for all the proportions to make the ftone re-
volve 106 times in a niinute.

Having determined on the fize of the wheels
and fize of the houfe, heights of the (lories to
fuit the Vidieels, and machinery it is to contain,
and builnefs to be carried on tiierein, proceed
to draw a ground, plan of the houfe, fuch as
plate VI, Vvdiich is 32 by 55 feet. See the de-

66 Bills of Scantling. |

Art. 35. fcription of the plate. And for the fecond "
ftory, as plate VII, &c. for the 3rd, 4th and'
5th floors, if required, taking care to plan eve-
ry thing for the beft, and fo as not to clafh one j
with another. '

Draw an end view, as plate VIII, and a fide
view, as plate IX. Take the draught to the
ground and ftake out the feat of the houfe.
It is commonly beft to fet that corner of an
overfhot mill that the water comes in at far-
theft in the bank : but take great care tp re-j
Gonfider and examine every thing more than|
once whether it be planned for the beft ; be-:
caufe, much labour is often loft for want of |
due confideration, and by fetting buildings in,
and laying foundations on wrong places.
' This done, you may from the draughts make
out the bills of fcantling and ironwork.

Art, 36. Bill of Scantling for a Mill, Z'^by ^^ Fect^ 3 Stories
high^fuch as defcribed Plate VI. VII. VIII. 6-

IX. The Walls of Mafon-vjork ,

For the firji Floor,

2 fills, 29 feet long, 8 by 12 inches, to lay
on the walls for the joifts to lay on.

48 joifts, 10 feet long, 4 by 9 inches; all of |
timber that wAW laft well in damp places.

Bills of Scantling. - (^j

Art. 3*-

For the fecond Floor,

I 2 pofts, 9 feet long, 1 2 by 12 inches.
I 2 girders, 30 feet long, 14 by 16 do.
i 48 joifts, 10 feet long, 4 by 9 do.

For the Floor over the IVater-houfe*

I crofs girder, 30 feet long, 12 by 14 inches,

for one end of the joifts to lay on.
) a pofts to fupport the girder, 12 feet long, 12

by 12 inches.
i 16 joifts, 13 feet long, 4 by 9 inches; all of

good whiteoak or other timber that will laft

in damp places.

For the third Floor,

1 4 pofts, 9 feet long, 12 by 12 inches, to fup-

! port the girders.

I 2 girder-pofts, 7 feet long, 12 by 12 inches, to

I ftand on the water-houfe.

; 2 girders, 53 feet long, 14 by 16 inches.

i 90 joifts, 10 feet long, 4 by 9 inches.

For the fourth Floor,
I
ij 6 pofts, 8 feet long, 10 by 10 inches, to fupport

I the girders.

[la girders, 53 feet long, i 3 by 15 inches.

I 30 joifts, ID feet long, 4 by 8 do. for the mid-

■■} die tier of the floor.

h 60 do. 12 feet do. 4 by 8, for the outfide tiers,

which extends 12 inches over the walls, for

the rafters to ftand on.
j 2 plates, 54 feet long, 3 by 10 inches: thefe ^

lay on the top oi;' the walls, and the joifts on

them.

Bills OF Scantling* |

2 raifing pieces, ^^ feet long, 3 by 5 inches ;
tliefe lay on the ends of the joifts for the raf-^ '
ters to (land on.

For the Roof.

54 rafters, 22 feet long, 3 inches thick, di wide ;
at bottom, and 4^. at top end. |

25 colar beams, 17 feet long, 3 by 7 inches*
2760 feet of laths, running meafure.
7000 fhingies.

For Doors. and TVindow-caJes ,

1 2 pieces, \i feet long, 6 by 6 inches, for door^

cafes.
36 do. 8 leet long, 5 by 5 inches, for window*,

cafes.

For the TVater-houJe . v

2 fills, 27 feet long, 12 by 12 inches.

1 do. i4feetlong, i2byi2do.

2 fpur-^blocks, 4 feet 6 inches long, 7 by 7 do.
2 head-blocks, 5 feet long, 12 by 14 do.

4 pofts, 10 feet long, 8 by 8, to bear up the

penftock.
2 capfills, 9 feet long, 8 by lo, for the penftock '

to ftand on.
4 corner pofts, 5 feet long, 4 by 6 inches, for

the corners of the penftock.

For the Hujk of a Mill of one JVater-wheel and two
Pair of Stones.

2 fills, 24 feet long, 12 by 12 inches.
4 corner pofts, 7 feet long, i 2 by 14 inches.
2 front pofts, 8 feet long, 8 by 12 do.
2 back pofts., 8 feet do. 10 by 12 inches, to fup-
port the back ends of the bridge-trees.

Bills of Scantling.

i other back pofts, 8 feet long, 8 by 8 inches. Art. go*
2 tomkin pofls, 12 feet long, 12 by 14 do.
2interties, cj feet long, 12 by 12 inches, for

the outer ends of the little cog-wheel Ihafts

to reft on.
Stop pieces, 10 feet 6 inches long, lO by 10

inches.
2 beams, 24 feet long, 16 by 16 inches.
2 bray-trees, 8^ feet long, 6 by 12 inches.

2 bridge-trees, 9 feet long, 10 by 10 inches.

4 plank, 8 feet long, 6 by 14 inches, for the
I ftone bearers.
I 20 do. 9 feet long, 4 by about 15 inches, for

the top of the huik^
j 2 head-blocks, 7 feet long, 12 by 15 inches, for
' the wallower fhafts to run on. They ferve

as fpurs alfo for the head-block for the wa-
I ter-wheel fhaft.

For the IVdter and big Cog-wheel,

I I ihaft, 18 feet long, 2 feet diameter.
8 arms for the water-wheel, 18 feet long, 3 by

9 inches.'
\ 16 Ihrouds, 84 feet long, 2 inches thick, and 8
I deep.
' 16 face boards, 8 feet long, i inch thick, and 9

deep.
{ ^G bucket boards, 2 feet 4 inches long, and ij

inches wide.
140 feet of boards, for foaling the wheel.

3 arms for the cog-wheel, 9 feet long, 4 by 14
inches.

16 cants, 6 feet long, 4 by 17 inches*

7o Bill of the large Irons, Sec,

^' ^ ' For little Gog-ivheels,

1 fliafts, 9 feet long, 14 inches diameter.
4 arms, 7 feet long, 34 by 10 inches.
1 6 cants, 5 feet long, 4 by 1 8 inches.

For Wallowers and Trundles, ■%,

60 feet of plank, 34 inches thick.

40 feet do. 3 inches thick, for bolting gears.

Cogs and Rounds ^

200 cogs, to be fplit, 3 by 3, 14 inches long.

80 rounds, do. 3 by 3, 20 inches long.

160 cogs, for bolting works, 7 inches loiig, and
i|. fquare : but if they be for a mill with,
machinery complete, there mull be more ac-
cordingly.

Bolting-Jhafts .

1 upright lliaft, 14 feet long, 54 by 54. inches.

2 horizontal fhafts, 17 feet long, 5 by 5 inches.

1 upright do . 1 2 feet long, 5 by 5 inches.
6 fhafts, 10 feet long, 4 by 4 do.

Bill of the large Irons for a Mill of two Pair of
Stones.

2 gudgeons, 2 feet 2 inches long in the fhaft ; neck
4-I- inches long, 3 inches diameter, well fleeled
and turned. See plate XII, fig. 16.

2 bands, 19 inches diameter infide, i- thick, and
3 inches wide, for the ends of thefliaft.

2 do. 204^ inches infide, 4 ^^^ Inch thick, and 24 in-
ches wide, for do.

2 do. 23 inches do, 4- an inch thick, and 24 inches
wide, for do.

Bill of Iron, &c. 71

4 gudgeons, 16 inches in the fhaft, 34^ inches long, ^rt. 37.
and 24 inches diameter in the neck for wallower
(hafts : See fig. 15, plate XII.
4 bands, lo inches diameter inlide, 4 an inch thick,

and 2 wide, for do.
4 do. 12 inches do. 4 an inch thick and 2 wide,

for do.
4 wallower bands, 3 feet 2 inches diameter infide,

3 inches wide and 4 of an thick.
4 trundle bands, 2 feet diameter infide, 3 inches

wide, and 4 of an inch thick.
2 fpindles and rynes ; fpindles 5 feet 3 inches long
from thefootto the top of the necks ; cock-heads
7 or 8 inches long above the necks ; the body
of the fpindles 34 by 2 inches ; the neck 3 inch-
es long and 3 inches diameter ; the balance rynes
proportional to the fpindles, to fuit the eye of
the fiione, which is 9 inches diameter. See plate
i XII, fig. r, 2, 3.
j 2 fteps for the fpindles, fig. 4,
I 2 fets of damfel-irons, 6 knockers to each fet.
i 2 bray-irons, 3 feet long, li- inch wide, J an inch
thick ; being a plain bar, one hole at the lower,
and 5 or 6 at the upper end.

I £i7/ of Iran for the Bolting and Hoifing-'voorks in the
\ cortimon tVay.

% fpur-wheel bands, 20 inches diameter from out-
fides, for the bolting fpur-wheel, \ of an inch
wide, and 4 thick.

51 do. 12 inches diameter from outfides, for the
hoifting fpur-wheel.

2 fl:ep-gudgeons and fteps, 10 inches long, \\ inch
thick in the tang, or fquare part ; neck 3 inch-
es long,for the upright fhafts. See plate XII,
fig. 5 and 6.

2 bands, for do. 5 inches diameter infide, li-wide,
and ~ thick.

2 gudgeons, pinches tang; neck 3 inches long,
14 fquare, for the top of the uprights.

72 B^iLL OF Iron, &c.

Art. 37. 8 bands, 44 inches diameter infidc,

1 focket-gudgeon, i-^ of an inch thick ; tang 1 %
inches long ; neck 4 inches ; tenon to go into
the fockct I 4 inch, with a key-hole at the end.
See fig. 8 and 9,

14 gudgeons, necks 2~ inches, tangs 8 inches long,
and 1 inch fquare, for fniall fhafts and one end of
the bolting-reels.

10 bands, for do, 4 inches diameter infide, and 1
inch wide.

4 focket-gudgeons, for the 4 bolting-reels, i\
fquare ; tangs 8 inches ; necks 3 inches, and te-|
nons 14 inch, with holes in the end of the tangs
for rivets, to keep them from turning : the fock^
ets I inch thick at the mortife, and 3 inches ber
tween the prongs. See fig. 8 and 9. Prongs 8
inches long and 1 wide.

8 bands, 34 inches, and 8 do, 4 inches diameter
for the bolting-reel fhafts.

For the Hoifting-wheels,

2 gudgeons, for the jack wheel, neck 34 inches,
and tang 9 inches long, i-^ fquare.

2 bands, for do. 44 inches diameter.

2 gudgeons, for the hoifting-wheel, neck 34 inch

es, tang 9 inches long, and l^inch fquare.
2 bands, for do. 7 inches diameter,
6 bands, for bolting-heads, 16 inches diameter in

fide, 2^ wide, and ~ of an inch thick.
6 do. fordo. I 5 inches do. do.

N. B. All the gudgeons fhould taper a little, as
the fizes given is their largefb part. The bands
for fhafts fliould be a little widcfh at the foremofl
fide to make them drive well ; but thofe for heads
fhould be both fides equal. — 6 picks for the ftones,
8 inches long, and 1-7 wide, will be wanted.

Explanation of the Plates 7^

Explanation of the Plates ,

PLATE V,

Drawn from afcale of ^ of an inch for a foot.
Fig. I a big cog-wheel, 8 feet 2f inches the dia-
meter of its pitch circle ; 8 feet lo-^ inches from

1 out to out ; 69 cogs, 4:^ inch pitch.

^ a little cog-wheel, 5 feet 10-^ inches the diame-
ter of its pitch circle, and 6 feet 6 inches from
out to out, to have 52 cogs 4^ pitch.

3 a wallower, 3 feet i-^ inches the diameter of its
pitch circle, and 3 feet 44^ inches from out to

, out ; 26 rounds 4^ pitch.

4 a trundle, I foot 8-7 inches the diameter of its
pitch circle, and i foot li"^ inches from out to

. out ; 1 5 rounds 4-^ inch pitch.

5 the back part of the big cog-wheel.

6 a model of locking 3 arms together.

7 the plan of a forebay, fhewing the fills, caps, and
where the mortifes are made for the pofts, with
a rack at the upper end to keep off the trafh,

Plate Nl.~rhe Cround-plan of a Mill.

Fig. 1 and 8 bolting-chefts and reels, top view.

2 and 4 cog-wheels that turn the reels.

3 cog-wheel on the lower end of a (hort upright
lliaft.

5 and 7 places for the bran to fall into.

6, 6, 6, three garners on the lower floor for bran.

9 and 10 pofts to fupport the girders.

1 1 the lower door to load waggons, horfes Sec. at.

12 the ftep-ladder, from the lower floor to the
huflc.

13 the place where the hoifting caflis ftand when
filling.

14 and 15 the two meal-troughs and meal-fpouts.

16 meal fliaking fieve for Indian and buckwheat.

17 a box for the bran to fall into from the fieve.

18 and 1 9 the liead-block, and long fpur-blocks,
for the big fhaft.

Art. qS,

74 Explanation of the Plates.

Art. 38. Fig. 20 four pofts in front of the huflc, called bray
pofts,

21 the water and cog-wheel fhaft.

22 the little cog-wheel and Ihaft, for the lower
ftones.

23 the trundle for the bur ftones.

24 the wallowcT fordo.

25 the fpur-wheel that turns the bolts.

26 the cog-wheel,

27 the trundle, head wallower and bridge-tree,
for country ftones.

28 the four back pofts of the hulk.

29 the two pofts that fupport the crofs girder.

30 the two pofts that bear up the penftocks at
one fide.

31 the water-wheel, 18 feet diameter.

32 the two pofts that bear up the other lide of the
penftock.

33 the head-blocks and fpur-blocks, at water
end.

34 a fill to keep up the outer ends.

35 the water-houfe door.

36 a hole in the wall for the trunk to go thro'.

37 the four windows of the lower ftory.

PLATE yil.—Second Floor,

Fig. I and 9 a top view of bolting-chefts and reels^

2 and 1 o places for bran to fall into.

3 and 8 the ftiafts that turn the reels,

4 and 7 wheels that turn the reels.

5 a wheel on the longfliafts between the uprights,

6 a wheel on the upper end of the upright ftiaft.

1 1 and 1 2 two pofts that bear up the girders of

the 3rd floor,
ig the long fliaft between two uprights.
14 five garners to hold tole,*&c.
15a door in the upper fide of the mill-houfe.
16 a ftep-ladder from 2nd to 3rd floor.

Explanation of the I'lates. 75

fig, 1 7 the running bur mill-ftone laid off to be Art. 38*

drefTcd.
1 18 the hatchway.
iip ftair way.

jio the running country ftone turned up to be dref-
I fed.

ill a fmall ftep- ladder from the huflc to 2nd floor,
122 the places where the cranes ftand.
[24 the pulley-wheel that turns the rolling-fcreen.
25 and 26, the Ihaft and wheel that turns the rol-
1 ling-fcreen and fan.
I37 the wheel on the horizontal ftiaft to turn the

bolting-reels.
I28 the wheel on the upper end of the firfl upright
: fhaft.

k^ a large pulley that turns the fan.
130 the pulley at the end of the rolling-icreen.
i;^i the fan.

32 The rolling-fcreen,

1^3 a flep-ladder from the hufli to the floor over
! the water-houfe.

34 and 35 two polls that fupport the girders of the
1 3rd floor.

36 a fmall room for the tailings of the rolling-fcreen,
57 a room for thefannings.

38 do. for the fcreenings.

39 a fmall room for the dull.

40 the penftock of water.

m a room for the miller to keep his books in,

ij2 a fire-place.

1^3 the upper end door,

[4 ten windows in the 2nd ftory, 12 lights each.

t PLATE VIII

j leprefents a view of the lower fide of a ftone mill-
^jioufe 3 ftories high, which plan will fuit tolera-
bly well for a two ftory houfe, if the third ftory be
jiot wanted. Part of the wall fuppofed to be open,
io that we have a view of the ftones, running
i;ears, c^c.

7^ Explanation Of the Plates.

Art. 38. Line 1 reprefents the lower floor, arid is nearly le veil
with the top of the fills, of the hufl^ aiad water-|
houfe. ■

2, 3 and 4 thefecond, third, and fourth floors.

5 and 6 are windows for admitting air uwder the \
lower floor.

7 the lower door, with fteps to afcend to it, which
commonly fuits beft to load from. ,

8 the areh over the tail-race for the water to run !
from the wheel.

p the water-hotife door, which fometimes fuits
better to be at the end of the houfe, where it;
makes room to wedge the gudgeon. \

10 the end of the water-wheel ihaft, :

1 1 the big cog-wheel.

12 the little cog-wheel and wallower, the truridlei
being feen tlirough the windov/. !

1 3 the ftoncs, with the hopper, fhoe and feeder, t%\
fixed for grinding. I

1 4 the meal- trough, ,
We have an end view of the hu& frame — ther^i

are thirteen windows with 1 2 lights each* '

PLATE IX I

licprefents an outfide view of the water end of aj
niill-houfe, and is to fiiew the builders, both ma
fons, carpenters and mill- Wrights, the height oi
the wails, floors, and timbers ; places of the doors
and windows, with a view of the pofition of the
ilones and hufk-timbers, fuppofing the wall open
fo that we could fee them.
Fig. 1,2,3 ""^ 4 ^Jews the joifiis of the floors.

5 reprefents a fifii turning with the wind ori ai)]
iron rod, which does as well as a weather-cock.

6 the end of the fhaft for hoifting outfide of the
houfe, which is fixed above the colar-beam:
above the doors, to fuit to hoifi: into either o
them, or either ftory, at either end of the houfe

■ as may belt fuit.

Of Saw-mills. 77

j Fig. 7 the dark fquares, fhewing the ends of the Art. 38.

I . girders.

1 8 the joiflsover the water-houfe.

i p the mill-ftones, with the fpindles they run on,
and the ends of the bridge-trees as they reft on
the brays aa. bb fhews the end of the brays,
that are raifed and lowered by the levers cc,
called the lighter- ftafFs, thereby raijfing and
lowering the running ftone.

10 the water-wheel and big cog-wheel.

1 1 the wall between the water and cog-wheel.

1 2 theiend view of the two lide-walls of the houfe^
Plate X is explained in the Preface,

Of Saw-mills. — Their Utility. Art. 39^

THEY are for fa wing timber into all kinds
bf fcantling, boards, laths, <5cc. &c. are ufed
to great advantage where labour is dear. One
mill, attended by one man, if in good order,
will faw more than 20 men with whip-faws,
and much more exa£lly.

Conjlru^ion of their Water-wheels,

I They have been varioufly conftru^led ; the
mod fimple and ufeful of which, where wa-
iter is plenty, and above fix feet fall, is the
-I flutter-wheel ; but where water is fcarce,
I in fome cafes, and for want of fufficient head
I'm others, to give flutter- v/heels fufficient m.o-
I tion, higii: wheels, double geared, have been
jl found necelTary. Flutter-wheeis may be made
I fuitable for any head above Ax feet, by making

Of Saw-mills.

Art. 39: them low and wide, for low heads ; and high
and narrow for high ones, fo as to make about
1 20 revolutions, or flrokes of the f aw, in a
minute : but rather than double gear I would
be fatisfied with 100.

A TABLE of the Diameter of Flutter-wheels from

out to Out/ides, and their IVidth in the clear^

fuitable to all Heads froin 6 to -^ofeet.

-»-

"■¥•

ft-

in.

in-

:IO

:il

= 8

= 3

: 0

= 9

••3

■5

2 .

•7

•A

•9

a's

••2

'^-

a.
0

ft.

f. in. J

ft. in.

19
20

23
24

25
26

27
28

29
30

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

10 '

1 J

2 1

3 '

4 I

5 I

6 I

7 I

8 I

9 ^

2:0
[ ;io
1:9
f :8

'7
:6

•5
'4

-2
:2
:I
:o

-=tr.

I 'l^

N. B. The above wheels are propofed as
narrow as will well do on account of faving
water ; but if there is very plenty of it, the
wheels may be made wider than directed in
the table, and the mill will be more power-
ful.

Of Saw-mills. 75

i Of Gearing Saw-mills, Art. 99.

I Of this I fliall fay but little they being ex-
1 penfive and but Uttie ufed. — They fhould be
;| geared fo as to give the faw about 120 llrokes
ij in a minute, when at work in a common log.
1 The vv^ater-wheel is like that of another mill,
M whether of the underlliot, overfliot, or bread
j kind ; the cog-wheel of the fpur kind, and
as larsce as will clear the water. The wal-
lower commonly has 14 or 15 rounds, but fo
as to produce the right motion. On the wal-
iower fhaft is a balance-wheel, which may be
of ftone or wood : this is to regulate the motion.
There lliould be a good head above the wa-
ter-wheel to give it a lively motion, elfe the
mill will run heavily.

The mechanifm of a complete faw -mill is
I fuch as to produce the following effed:s, viz.

1 . To move the faw up and down, with a
j fufficient motion and power.

2. To move the log to meet the faw with
an uniform motion.

3. To flop of itfelf when within 3 inches
of being through the log.

4. To draw the carriage with the log back
by the power of water ready to enter again.

The mill is ftopped as follows, viz. When
j the gate is drawn the lever is held by a catch,
I and there is a trigger, one end of which is

within half an inch of the fide of the carriage,
i| on which is a piece of wood an inch and a half
i thick nailed, fo tliat ic will catch againft the
i trio-o-er as the carriao-e moves, which throws
i the catch off of the lever of the gate, and it

(huts down at a proper time.

Art. 39.

Of Saw-mills.

Defer ipt ion of a Saw- mil i»

Plate XI. Is an elevation and perfpedive
view of a faw-mill, iliewing the foundation,
walls, frame, &c. 6cc,

Fig. o, I, The frame uncovered, 52 feet
long, and 12 feet wide.

Fig. 2, The lever for communicating the
motion from the faw-gate to the carriage, to
move the log. It is 8 feet long, 3 inches fquare, ,
tenoned into a roller 6 inches diameter, reach-
ing from plate to plate, and working on gud-
geons in them ; in its lower fide is framed a
block 10 inches long, with a mortife in it 2 ;
inches wide its whole length to receive the upr
per end of the hand-pole, having in it feve-
rai holes for an iron pin, to join the hand-pole
to it to regulate the feed, by fetting the handr
pole nearer the centre of the roller to give lefs,
and farther off, to give more feed.

Fig. 3, The hand-pole or feeder, 12 feet
long, and 3 inches fquare v^'here it joins thp
block

Fig, 4, tapering to 2 inches at the lower end,;
on which is the iron hand i foot long, witiif
a focket, the end of which is flattened fteel-!
ed and hardened, and turned down at each
fide half an inch to keep it on the rag-wheel.

Fig. 5, the rag-wheel. This has four cants
4^^ feet long, 17 by 3 inches in the middle,
lapped together to make the wheel 5 feet di-
ameter, is faced between the arms with 2 inch|
plank, to flrengthen the laps. The cramp or
ratchet-iron is put on as a hoop near i inch
fauare, with ratchet-notches cut on its outer
edge, about ^ to an inch. On one fide of the

Of Saw-mills. 8i

wheel are put 12 ftrong pins, 9 inches long, An. 39.
to tread the carriage back, when the backing
works are out of order. On the other fide are
the cogs, about 56 in number, 3 inch pitch to
gear into the cog-wheel on the top of the tub-
wheel fliaft, with 15 or 16 cogs. In thefhaft
of the rag-wheel are 6 or 7 rounds, n inches
long in the round part, let in near their whole
thicknefs, fo as to be of a pitch equal to the pitch
of the cogs of the carriage, and gear into
them eafily : the ends are tapered off outfide
and a band drove on them at each end, to keep
them in their places.

Fig. 6 the carriage. Is a frame 4 feet wide

from outfides, one fide 29 feet long, 7 by 7

inches ; the other 32 feet long, 8 by 7 inches,

very llraight and true, the interties at each end

15 by 4 inches, ftrongly tenoned and braced

iinto the fides to keep the frame from racking.

In the under fide of the largefi: piece are fet two

rows of cogs, 2 inches between the rows, and

9 inches from the fore fide of one cog to that

of another ; the cogs of one row between thofe

i of the other, fo as to make 44 inch pitch, to

igear into the rounds of the rag-wheel. The

kogs are about 66 ia number; fiiank 7 inches

ilong, 14 inch fquare ; head 2|- long, 2 inches

I thick at the points, and 2^ inches at the fhoul-

I der,

Fig. 7 the ways for the carriage to run on.
Theie are ilrips of plank 44^ inches wide, 2 inch-
es thick, fet on edge, let 14 inch into the top
of the crofs fills, of the whole length of the
mill, keyed fad on one fide, made very ftraight
both fjde and edge, fo that one of them will
pafs eafiiy between the rows of cogs in the car-

82 Of Saw-mills. I

Art. 39. riage, and leave no room for it to move fide-
ways. They (hould be of hard wood well
feafoned, and hollowed out between the fills to
keep the dull: from lodging on them.

Fig. 8, the fender polls. The gate with;
the faw plays in rabbits, 24, deep and 4 inches
wide, in the fender polls, which are 12 feet i
long, and 12 inches fquare, hung by hooked;
tenons, the front fide of the two large crofs
beams in the middle of the frame, in mortifes in
their upper fides, fo that they can be moved
by keys to fet them plum. There are 3 mor-
tifes two inches fquare through each poll,!
within half an inch of the rabbits, through
which pafs hooks with large heads, to keep
the frame in the rabbits : they are keyed at
the back of the polls.

Fig. 9, the faw, which is 6 feet long, 7 or
8 inches wide when new, hung in a frame 6 :
feet wide from the outfides, 6 feet 3 inches
long between the end pieces, the lowermofl i
of which is 14 by 3 inches, the upper one 12
by 3, the fide pieces 5 by 3 inches, 10 feeti
long, all of the bed, dry, hard wood. The
faw is faftened in the frame by two irons in!
form of llaples, the lower one with two fcrew \
pins paffing through the lower end, fcrewing i
one leg to each fide of the end piece ; thei
legs of the upper one are made into fcrews, j
one at each fide of the end piece, paffing thro' :
a broad flat bar that rells on the top of the |
end piece, with flrong burs ii. inches fquare,)
to be turned by an iron fpan made to fit them. \
Thefe ftraps are made of flat bars, 3 feet 9 i
inches long, 3 inches wide, 4 thick before j
turned ; at the turn they are 5 inches wide, ;

Of Saw-mills. 85

liquare, and iplit, to receive the faw, and Art. 39.
tug-pins, then brought nearer together, fo as
ito fit the gate. The faw is flretched tight in
this frame, by the fcrews at the top, exactly
in the middle at each end, meafuring from
the outfide ; the top end {landing about half an
inch more forward than the bottom.

Fig. 10, the forebay of water, projed;ing
through the upper foundation wall.

Fig. II, the flutter- wheel. Its diameter
'and length according to the head of water, as
(hewn in the table. The floats are fafl;ened in
with keys, fo that they will drive inward when
[iany thing gets under them, and not break,
thefe wheels fhould be very heavy, that they
may a^l as a fly or balance to regulate the mo-
tion, and work more powerfully.

Fig. 12, the crank — fee it reprefented by a
draught from a fcale of i foot to an inch —
pi. XII. fig. 17. The part in the ftiaft 2 feet
3 inches long, 3! by 2 inches, neck 8 inches long
5 thick, and 1 2 inches from the centreof the neck
Lo the centre of the wrifl: or handle, which is
^5 inches long to the key-hole, and 2 inches
•thick.

l^he gudgeon at the other end of the fhaft
s 18 inches in the fliaft, neck 34 long, 2^ dia-
meter.

i The crank is faftened in the fame way as
l^udgeons. See art. 13.

I Fig. 12 — 13, the pitman ; which is 34ineh-
bs fquare at the upper end, 4-; in the middle,
jmd 4 near the lower end, but 20 inches of
Ihe lower end is 44. by 54, to hold the boxes
j.nd key, to keep the handle of the crank
light.

84 Of Saw-mills*

Art. 39. Pitman Irons of an improved ConJlruCiion*

See Plate XII. fig. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. 18^
Fig. 10 is a plate or bar, with a hole in each
end, through which the upper ends of the lug
pins II — II pafs, with a flrong bur fere wed
on each, they are 17 inches long, \\ inches
fquare, turned at the lower end to make a
round hole 14 diameter, made flrong round
the hole.

Fig. 12 is a large flat link, paffing thro'
a mortile near the lower fide of the end of
the faw-frame. The lug pins pafs one through
6ach end of this link, which keeps them elofe
to the gate fides.

14. Is a bar of iron 2 feet long '3-I- inches
wide, i^ inch thick , at the lower end, and 1\ at
the upper end. It is fplit at the top and turn-
ed as the fig. to pafs through the lug pins,
r At fig. 13 there is a notch fet in the head of
the pitman bar 14, i4 inch long, nearly as
deep as to be in a ftraight line with the lower

ide of the fide pins made a little hollow, fteel-j
ed and made very hard.

Fig. 18, is an iron plate \\ inch wide, halfj
an inch thick in the middle, with 2 large nail-i
holes in each end, and a round piece of fteel]
welded acrofs the middle and hardened, madej
to fit the notch in the upper end of the pitman,
pi. XIV. and drawn clofe by the lug pins,
to the under fide of the faw-frame and nailed
fall. Now, if the bearing part of this joint be
in a ftraight line, the lower end of the pitmai
may play without fri6lion in the joint, becaufc-
both the upper and lower parts will roll with-

Op Saw-mills. 8^

out Aiding, like the centre of a fcale-beaiti, Att.39.
and will not wear.

This is by far the bell plan for pitman irons.
The firft fet I ever feen or heard of has been
in my faw-raill 8 years, doing* much hard
work, and has not coft 3 minutes to adjuft
them ; whereas others are frequently very
troublefome.

Fig. 14, the tub-wheel for running the car-
riage back. This is a very light wheel, 4 feet
diameter, and put in motion by a motion of the
foot or hand, at once throwing it in gear with
the rag-wheel, lifting off the hand and clicks
from the ratchet, and hoifling a little gate to
let water on the wheel. The moment the
fiw Hops, the carriage with the log begins to
move gently back again.

Fig. 15, the cog-wheel on the top of the
tub- wheel {haft, with 15 or 16 cogs.

Fig. 16, the log on the carriage, fawed part
through.

Fig. 17, a crank and windlafs to increafe
power, by which one man can draw heavy logs
on the mill, and turn them by a rope round
i| the log and windlafs.

Fig. 18, a cant hook for rolling logs.

Fig. 19, a double dog, fixed into the hind-
mod head-block, ufed by fome to hold the log.

Fig. 20, are iiualler dogs toufe occafionally
at either end.

Fig. 21 — '22, reprefents the manner of
fiiooting water on a flutter-wheel by a long
open ihute, which fhould not be more perpen-
dicular than an angle of 45 degrees, left the
water fnould rife from the fhute and take air,
which would, be a great lofs of the power.

Of A Fulling-mill.

Fig. 23, reprefeiits a long, perpendicular^,
tight fhute ; the gate 23 is always drawn fuK
ly, and the quantity of water regulated at the
bpttpm by a little gate r for the purpofe.
There muft be air let into this Ihute by a tube j
entering at a.* Thefe ihutes are for faving. I
expence where the head is great, and fhould I
be much larger at the upper than lower end,
elfe there will be a lofs of power, t The per- i
pendicular ones fuit bed where a race paffes
withm 12 ffget of the upper fide of the milL.

'of e r a T I o n.

jThe fluice drawn from thepenftock 10, puts*
the wheel 1 1 in motion — the crank 1 2 moves-
the faw-gate and faw 9 up and down, and as:
they rife they lift up the lever 2, which puihes
forward the hand-pole 3,, which moves the
rag-wheel 5, which gears in the cogs of the
carriage 6, and draws forward the log 16 to
meet the faw, as much as is proper to cut at a
llroke. When it is within 3 inches of being
through the log, the elect C, on the fide of the
carriage, arrives at a trigger and lets it fly,
and the fluice-gate fhuts down ; the miller in-
ftantly draws water on the wheel 14, which
runs the log gently back, &c. &c.

^o. Defer iptioji of a FiiUing~?nilL

FIG. 19 plate XII, is thepenftock, water-
gate and fpout of an overfhot fulling-mill, the
whole laid down from a fcale of 4 feet to an
inch. '

* The ufe of this air-tube isfliewn art. 7r, pagei2, of Part 11.
t Muft be very ftrong elfe they wil] burft.

Of A FUL LING-MI LL. Sj

Fig. 20 one of the 3 interties, that are framed ah. 49-
one end into the front fide of the top of the
ilock-block ; the other ends into the tops of the
3 circular pieces that guide the mallets : they are
6 feet long, 5 inches wide, and 6 deep.

Fig. 21 are the 2 mallets ; they are 4 feet 3
inches long, 21 inches wide, and 8 thick, fliap-
ed as in the figure.

Fig. 22 their handles, 8 feet long, 10 inches
wide, and 3 thick. There is a roller paffes
through them, 8 inches from the upper
ends, and hang in the hindermoll coriier of the
ftock-poft. The other ends go through the
mallets, and have each on their under fide a
plate of iron faced with fleel and hardened, 2
feet long, 3 inches wide, faftened by fcrew-
bolts, for the tappet-blocks to rub againft while
lifting the mallets.

Fig. 23 the ftock-pofl, 7 feet long, 2 f^et
fquare at the bottom, 15 inches thick at top,
and ftiaped as in the figure.

Fig. 24 the ftock where the cloth is beaten,
fliaped infide as in the figure, planked each fide
as high as the dotted line, wdiich planks are put
in rabitsin the pofl, the infide of the ilock, being
18 inches wide at bottom, 19 at top, and 2 feet
deep.

Fig. 25 one of the 3 circular guides for the
mallets ; they are 6 feet long, 7 inches deep,
and 5 thick ; are framed into a crofs fill at bot-
tom that joins its lower edge to the fi:ock-pofi:.
This fill forms part of the bottom of the (lock,
and is a feet long;, 20 inches wide, andio thick.
The fill under the ftock-pofi; is 6 feet long,
20 inches wide, and 18 thick. The fill before
the flock is 6 feet long and 14 inches fquare.

88 Qf A Fulling-mill.

Art. 40. Fig, ^6 the tappet-arms, 5 feet 6 inches loner,

fii inches ^ach fide thp Ihaft, 12 inches wide,
and 4 thick. There is a niortife through each
pf theni4 inches wide, the length frorn fhaft to
tappet, for th§ ends of the mallet handles to pafs
fhrongh. The tappets are 4 pieces of hard
wood, 1 2 inches Jong, 5 wide, and 4 thick, ma.de
in the form of half circles piiied to the ends of
the arms.

Fig. 27 the overfhot water-wheel, fimilar tp
other mills.

Fig. 28 one of the 3 fills, 16 feet long, an^
J 2 inches fquare, with waljs under them as jn
the figure,

OPERATION,

The cloth is put in a loofe heap into the jftock
?4 ; thp water being drawn 051 the wheel the
|:appet-arnis lift the mallet3 alternately, which
firike the under part of the heap of cloth, and
the upper part: is continually falling over, and
thereby turning and changing its pofition under
the mallets, which are of the lliape in the fi^
gure, to produce this eife^l.

Defcription of the Drawings of the Iron-works^ Plate

XII,

Fig. I is a fpindle, 2 the balance-ryne, and 3 the
driver, for a mill-ftpne. The length of the Ipin-
dle from the fqot to the top of the neck is about
5 feet 2 inches 5 cock-head 8 or o inches from the
top of the neckj, which is 3 inches long, and 3 dia-
meter ; blade or body 34^ by 2 inches thick ; foot
\^ inch diameter ; both neck, foot, ^nd top of the
pock-head fteeled, turned and hardened.

Of A FULLING-iMlLL. 89

Fig. 2. The balance-ryne is fometimes made Art. 40.
[with 3 horns, one of which is fo fliort as only to
[reach to the top of the driver, which is let into
!the ftone right under it ; the other to reach near
las low as the bottom of the driver : but of late are
imoftly made with 2 horns only, which may be
imade fufficiently faft by making it a little wider
than the eye, and let into the ftone a little on each
|fide to keep it fteady and from moving fide ways.
Some choofe them with 4 horns, which fills the
eye too much.
!"' -^^S* 3 is the driver, about 15 inches long.

Fig. 4 the ftep for the fpindle-foot to run in. "^

It is a fquare box 6 i;\iches long, 4 inches wide at
top, but lefs at bottom, and 4 inches deep outfides,
the fides and bottom half an inch thick. A piece
of iron i inch thick is fitted to lay tight in the bot-
tom of this box, but not welded ; in the middle of
which is welded a plug of fteel i^- inch fquare,
through which is punched a hole to fit the fpin-
dle-foot i- of an inch deep. It muft be tight to
hold oil.

Fig. 5 a flep-gudgeon for large upright-lhafts,
j.(i inches long and 2 fquare, fteeled and turned at
the toe.

Fig. 6 the ftep for it, fimilar to 4 but lefs pro-
portionable.

Fig. 7 a gudgeon for large bolting-fhafts, 13
incites long and if fquare.

Fig. 8 a large joint-gudgeon, tang 14 inches,
neck 5, and tenon 2 inches long, 14^ inch fquare.

Fig. 9 the focket part to fit the fliaft, with 3 ri-
vet holes in each.

Fig. lo — 14 — 18 pitman-irons, defcribed art. 39.

Fig. 15 the waliower-gudgeon, tang 16 inches,
neck 3^ inches long, and 2f diameter.

Fig. 16 the water-wheel gudgeon, tang 2 feet 2
inches long, neck 44- inches ditto, 3^ fquare.

Fig. 17 a faw-mili crank, defcribed art 39,

90 Of A FULLING-MI LL. !

Art. 40. N. B. The fpindle-ryne, Sec. is drawn from a

fcaie of 2 feet to an inch, aild all the other irons i '
foot to an inch.

In addition to what is faid of faw-mills, by Thomas Ellicott, I add the following.

0/^ /tanging the Sazu.

Firft, fet the fender- pofts as near plum every way as pofllble, and the head-blocks on
which the log is to lay, level. Putthe faw right in the middle of the gate, meafuringfroi^ |
the outfidesj'^vith the upper teeth about h^lf an inch farther forv/ard than the lower ones ; I
fet it by the gate and not by a plumline — this is to give the faw liberty to rife without cut- j
ting, and the log room to pulh forward as it rifes. Run the carriage forv/ard, fo that the \
faw ftrike the block — ftick up a nail, Zee there — run it back again its full length, and,
{landing behind the faw, fet it to dirertexaftly to the mark. Stretch the law in the frame
rather moil: at the edge, that it may be ftiffeft there. Set it to go, and hold a tool clofe to
one fide, and obferve whether it touch equally the whole length of the ftroke — try if it be
fquare with the top of the head-blocks, elfe it willnotraakp the fcantliiig fquare.

Of -whetting the Saw.

The edge of the teeth ought to be kept ftraight, and not fuffered to wear hollowing-^-,
the teeth fet a little out, equal at each fide, and the outer corners a little longefl — they
will clear their way the better. Some whet the under fide of the teeth nearly level, and a
others a little drooping down; but then it ^vill never faw fteady — will be apt to wood too \
much ; — they ftiould flope a little up, but very little, to make it work fteady. Try a j
cut through the log, and if it comes out at the mark made to fst it by, fliews it to be right ij
hung.

Of fpriyiging Logs fl'raight. '

Some long fraalllogs will fpring fo much in fawing as to fpoil the fcantling, unlefs it can \
be held ftraight : t o do which make a clamp to bear with one end againft the fide of the car- j
riage, the other end under the log with a poft up the fide thereof--drive a wedge betweet
thepoftand log, and fpring it ftraight ; this will bend the carriage fider—but no mattei-»-i^
is no injury.

Of moving the Logs, to the Size of Scantlings &c.

Make a Aiding- block to Hide in a rabbet in front of the main head-block : faften the log \
to this with a little dog on«ach fide, one end of which being round, is drove into a round j
hole, in the front fide of the Aiding block, the other flatted to drive in the log, cutting!
acrofs the grain, flanting a little out — it will draw the log tight, and frick in the better, j
Set a poft of hard wood in the middle of the main block clofe to the Hiding one, and to ex- I
tend with a ftioulder over the Hiding one, for a wedge to be drove under this Ihoulder to I
keep the block tight. Make a mark on each block to meafure from — ^when the log is mov- |
ed the key is driven out. The other end next the faw is belt held by a' Hiding dog, part on
each fide of the faw pointed like a gouge, with two fingle joint dogs, one on each lide of
the faw.

Remedy for a long Pitrnan.

Make it in two parts by a joint 10 feet from the crank, and a mprtife through a fix
ed beam, for the lower end of the upper part to play in, the gate will work more fteady, i
and all may be made lighter.

The feed of a faw-mill ought to be regulated by a fcrew fixed to move the hand-pole
nearer or farther from ths centre of the roller that moves it, which may be done as the
faw arrives at a knot without flopping the mill.

END OF PAPiT FIFTH.

A P P E N D IX;

CONTAINING,

lu/es for difcovering 7iew Improve^nents — exemplified in im-
proving the Art of thraJJiing and cleaning Grain ^ hulling
Rice, warming Rooms, and venting Smoke by Chim-
neys, Sec.

THE TRUE PATHS TO INVENTIONS.

SiECESSITY is called the mother of Inventions — but upon enquiry we Ihall find, that
eafon and Experiment brings them forth. — For almoft all Inventions have been difcovered
f fuch Heps as the following ; which may be taken as a

RULE,

STEP I. Is to inveft'igate the fundamental principles of the theory, and procefs of the
tor manufafture we wiili to improve.

II. To confider what is the beft plaa in theory that can be deduced from, or fouaded on
ofe principles to produce the effect we defire.

III. Confider whether the theory is already put in practice to the beft advantage, and
hat are the imperfeftions or difadvantages of the common procefs of the art, and whether
ey can be evaded, and the procefs improved, and what plans are moft likely to fucceed.

IV. Make experiments in praAice to try any plans that thefe fpeculative reafonings may
opofe, or lead to. — Any ingenious artill, taking the foregoing fteps, will probably be led

improvements on his own art : For we fee by daily experience, that every art may be
iproved. It will, however, be in vr.in to attempt improvements unlefs the mind be freed
om prejudice, in favour of eftablifiied plans.

EXAMPLE L

Sappoje lue take the Art of tJira filing Grain,

THEN BY THE RULE

STEP I. What are the principles on which th-is art is founded \ — The grain is contain-
in a head on the top of the ftraw,enclofed in a hufk or chaff that requires a force to break

e hul], and difengage it ; v,-hich may be done either on the principle of beating or rubbing.

|II. What is the beft plan in theory for effet^ling this? — As we find that it all requires Eear-
equal force, and is all contained in the head, which is much lefs in quantity than the

aw — Theory direfts the force to be regularly and uniformly applied to the head only,

lich will require but little power, feeing we can rub it out between our hands.

III. Hov/ is this theory put in prafticejand what are the imperfections and difadvantages
the common procefs ? — ^The grain in the ftraw is laid on a plank floor, and beaten by men^

|th flails ; or on the ground, and tread out by horfes. The difadvantages are,

jift. The force is in both cai'es applied equally to the flraw as well as the head.

;2nd. Much force is lofr bsing unneceffarily expended in beating the flraw, yet many

|K1s efcape undone, becaufe the force is fo irregularly applied.

i^rd. In treading by horfes, the grain as well as the ffraw gets dirty.

i^th. Thralhing by men is both expenfive and tedious. — ^Now cannot improvements be

|ide to overcome all thefe difadvantages \ Such fpeculatioiis have produced feveraJ.

2 API>ENDIX.

Firft, a machine on the principles of a coffee mill, which tequires very little force to fub
the grain out of the heads, which are firft feparated from the ftraw by means of a machine
on the principle of a comb, cutting them off. A machine to reap the heads without the
ftraw is wanted to complete this theory. For a defcription, fee American Encyclopaedia.

Second, a machine^ invented, and put in practice by Coin. Alexander Anderfon of Phi-
ladelphia ; the principles of which is to apply the ftrength of horfes to ftrike the ftraw
regularly with a uniform force, which finilhes as it goes^ and cleans the grain at the fame
time.

A cylinder 4 feet long, and 3 feet 6 inches diameter, with eight bats faftened to its cir-
cumference parallel to its axis, and of its whole lengthy is made to revialve with great
rapidity; the bats ftrike the ftraw at every fourth of an inch, it being drawn into the ma-
chine by and bstwsen two rollers that move flowly. Thfs machine makes great difpatchy
but is expenfive.

Others, attending to the principle of treading, have made a thing in the fonn of the fruf-
truni of a cone or iugar-loaf, fet full of cogs, to aft as the horfes feet. This is drawn by
horfes round a circular floor adapted to it, on which the grain is laid — the centre of the
circle being the vertex of the cone. This having conliderable weight and many cogs, a
liorfe will beat out much more with it than with his feet, b'ecaufe it will ftrike a great ma-
ny moir^ ftrokes with equal force. It has thefe advantages : it can be made by any ordi-
nary carpenter-' — is cheap — ^and the dirt is not mixed with the grain, ftrawy &c.

The following plate and defcription I received from the inventer.

Dejcription cf the Thrashing MaChi>^e, -with elaftic Flaih;\

Ir.vestcd h^ JAMES WARD K. OP, of Ampthill, Virgxni.i. !

Plate XIJI.

A The floor on which the flails are fixed. GGG Lifters with ropes fixed to the flails.

B The part of the floor on which the grain is III Catches or teeth to raife the lifters. ;

laid, made of wicker-work, thro* -vvhich K Poft on which the wallower is fixed.

, the grain falls, and is conveyed to the fan L Beam on which the lifters reft and are

or fcreen below : the pivot of the fan is fixed by an iron rod palling thro' the

feen at P, and is turned by a band from the lifters, and let into this beam.

tlie wheel or wallower. M Check-beam to ftop the end of the lifters

CCC A thin board railed round the floor to from rifing.

confine the wheat, and made fnelving out- N Keeps in which the lifters work. i

wards,to render raking off the ftraw more O Beam in which the end of the flails are

eafy. raortifed. ,

D The v/allower or wheel. Q_ Fly-ends loaded with lead, not neceffary

E Crank handle to turn the wheel. in a horfe machine.

FF Flails. R Shewing the lifters and keeps, how fixed.

THE machine, to be worked by two men, was made on a fcale of a 12 foot fiail^ having,
a fpring which required a power of 2olb. to raife it three feet high at the point : — A fprin;
of this power, and railed three feet high, being found to get out wheat with great effeft.

The catches or teeth are ftrongly mortifed into the wallower-fliaft, and placed round ii,
its circumference, fo as to make an angle one with another, of 30 deg. Thefe catches o
teetlj, take the lifters v.'hich raife the flailsnn an alternate manner, that is, three of the flail
are operated upon with the whole power (viz. 23 lb.) and are on the point of ftriking ; thre
of them are two thirds raifed; three of them one third raifed; and three of them at reft
confequently the whole weight to be overcome is i2olb.

The lifters fhould be placed fo as that a perpendicular from their lifting end be at tli
middle of the flail; the rope ftiould be fixed to the flail fomewhat farther advanced to th
end of the flail, that a proper tangent may be obtained : the ends of the lifters, and th
teeth in the wallower, ftiould be rounded off to form a tangent with each other.

The rope fliould be fixed to the flail with a hook and eye, to take offwhen not at work
for fome of the flails being always in a lifting ftate, their elafticity would otherwile injun

The greater the length of the flails, and the higher they are raifed, the n;ore pow erfr.l the
become ; they aft upon the floor, with effeft, about one third of their length ; con(equciii;
;i flail 24 feet long will aft on the floor eight feet with force ; and this is tlic f:zc of ihi
I would recommend in a horfc machine.

APPENDIX. 3

I have made the flails of white-oak and hickory poles ; the elafticity wanted was obtain-
ed by paring away the upper part of the flail, from where the firing is faftened to the end
. fixed in the mortife : in this way the ftrength of the fpring, and confequenlly the weight to
be overcome, can eafily be obtained according to the intended fize of the machine. I had
flails made with fteel fprings ; the poles do better, and can eafily be renewed whesever they
, are wanted.

The wicker-work having fome elafticity, adds to the eafe in thrafhing. As mofl: kinds of
Lorain cannot be got out with flails, unlefs frequently turned, this becomes necefTary here, but
\.'ill take up mo more time than in the common way of hand-thrafliing.

When neceflary to turn the grain, or remove the fliraw, the end of the flails can readily
be raifed from the floor, and fufpended by a fmall cord from above, to each flail.
The fan or fcreen is intended for the hori<3-machine only.

The waliower or v/heel ThDuld have 1 5 revolutions in a minute ; there being four catches

Or teeth in its circumference, caufes Gj flirokes of each flail in a minute, the flail operating

with a length of four feet on the grain. A man thrafhing in the ufual manner, cannot make

\ more than 40 flrokcs in a minute, with a three foot flail ; confequently this haHd-machine,

with twelve flails, by a combination of velocity and fpace, is equal to 24 men thrafhing,

i fuppofing the lirokc of the flails equally powerful. In a large machine, worked by ahorfe

' having 24 flails, of 24 feet in length, the execution will be much greater.

I The application of a harfe requires only an upright fhaft,^ horizontal wheel, and trundle

I head fixed to the waliower; the horfe going at the rate of 3600 yards in an hour ; this is a

flow motion to the horfe ; he ean work a whole day at this fpeed; the frequent flops to re-

I move the ftraw will alfo give him reft : the trundle^head can be eafily propdrtianed to give

the wallower-wheel 15 revolutions in a minute.

If applied to water, the power and execution of this machine may be raifed to a wonder-
; ful degree.

This machine can be put up in any barn already creded^ithe wheel and horfe path co-
vered with a fliglit (hade on the outfide of the barn.

. It is Ample in all its parts, can be made by any country carpenter, and not apt to get out
of order : the cofl of an hand maciiine will not exceed 50, and of a horfe one joo dtollar*.
Ampthill, Sept. 4th) I794•
E X A M P L E II.

Ti^ke the Art of cleaning Grain by IVind,

BY THE RULE

STEP I. What are the principles on which the art is founded ? — Bodies falling through^
Tclifting mediums, their velocities are as their fpecific gravities ; confequently the farther
they fall the greater will be their diftancc : On this principle a feparation can be effefied.
• II. What is the befl: plan in theory ?— Firft, make a current of air for the grain to fall
through, as deep as pofTible ; then the lighteft will be carried fartheft:, and the feparation be
more complete at the end of the £iU. Secondly, caufe the grain with the chaff", &c. to fall
in a narrow line acrofs the current, that the light parts may meet no obftruftion from the
heavy in being carried forv/ard. Thirdly, fix a moveable board edgwife to feparate be-
tween the good clean grain, and light grain, &c. • Fourttily, caufe the fame blaft to blow
the grain feveral times, and thereby efleft a complete feparation at one operLftion.

III. Is this theory in pratliee already, what a^e' the difadvantages of the common proccfs ?
We find that the common farmers fans drop the grain in a line 15 inches wide, to fall thro'
s. current, of air about 8 inches deep, (inflead of tailing in a lino half sn inch wide, through a.

' current 3 feet deep) So that it requires a very flrong blafl: even to blow out the chaff; but
garlick, light grains, &c. cannot be got out, they meet fo much obflrudtion from the heavy
grains. It has to undergo 2 or 3 operations ; lb that the praftice appears no way equal to
theory; and appears ablurd when tried by the fcaie of reafon.

IV. The foarth ilep is to conftrutil: a fan to put the theory in praftice, to try the expe-
riment*. See Art. 83.

'' This Tii-nothy Kirk, carpeiite-;: of York-town is about to do, and claims the invention
ef the application of the fame blafl: feveral times \ lo as to clean the grain completely at one
•nperation ; and if die plans are well e;:2c..ted will no doubt excel all others yet made.

P E N D I X.

EXAMPLE IH;
Take the ^4rt of Dijlillatibn.

STEP I. The principles on which this art is founded arej evaporation and condenfa-
tion. The liquid being heated, the fpirits it contains being moft oily and lighteft, evapo-
rates firft into lleam, which being condenfed again into a liquid, by cold, is the fpirits.

II. The beft plan in theory for effecting this, appears as follows : the fire ftiould be ap-
plied to the ftill fo as to fpend the greateil part of its^heat pofiible, to heat the liquid. Se-
condly, the fteam fliould be Conveyed into a metal veffel of any form that may luitbefl-;
which is to be immerfed in cold water, to condenfe the fteam ; and in order to keep the con-
denfer cold, there ftiould be a ftream of water continually entering the bottom and flowing
over the top of the condenfing tub, the flieara fhould have no free paffage out of the conden-
fer, elfe the ftrongeft part of the liquor may efcape.

III. Is this theory already put in praftiee, and what are the difadvantages of the com-
mon procefs?— ift. Greateftpart of the heat cfcapes up the chimney. 2nd. It is alnioft ira-^
poffible to keep the grounds from burning in the flill. 3rdly. The fire cannot be regulated to
keep the ftill from boiling over; therefore we are obliged to run flow: to remedy thefe
difadvantages— Firfl-, to leljen the fuel, apply the fire as much to the furface of the ftill
as poffible. Enclofe the fire by a wall of tlay that wiil not convey the heat away fo faft
as ftone or iron ; let in as little air as pofllbly can be made to keep the fire "burning ; for the
air carries away the heat of the fire. . Secondly, to keep the grounds from burning, immerfe
the ftill M'ith the liquor into a velTel of water, joining their tops together, then by applying
the fire to heat the -water in the outfide veffel the grounds will not burn, and by regulating
the heat of the outfide veffel the ftill may be kept from boiling over.

IV. A ftillof this ftrufture was made by Col. Alexander Anderfon, of Philadelphia, and
the experiment tried 5 but the water in the outfide velfel boiled, and being open, the heat
*fcapecl thereby, and the liquor in the ftill could not be made to boil — this appeared to de-
feat the fcherae. But confidering that by enclofing the water in a tight veflel, fo that the
fteam could not efcape, and that by compreffure the heat might be increafed, and it paffed
to the liquor in the ftill, which now boiled as well as if the fire had been immediately ap-
plied to the ftill. Again, by fixing a valve to be loaded fo as to let the fteam efcape, when
arrived to fuch a degree of heat as to be near boiliflg over, then the ftill could not be
made to boil over at all.

Thus was an improvem.ent produced by which he can difpatch bufmefs in the ratio of
2 to I, expending fuel in the ratio of 2, to 2 i-2, to produce equal quantities of liquor.'—
We may bring forward another improvement by confidering, that, as we know by experi*
ence that compreffure above the weight of the atmofphere, keeps the fteam fi-om rif'.ng
from the water, till heated to a certain degree above the boiling heat. We may hence
conclude that a conrprefture lefs than the atmofphere, will fuffer it to rife with a degree
lefs than boiling heat, which fuggefts the expediency of taking off the preffure of the at-
mofphere from the liquor in the flill, by which means we fliall expend lefs fuel, and t.he
heat need never be fo great as to burn the grounds, which may be done by putting the end
of the worm into a tight globular veffel of metal, and a cock between it and the condenfer;
then injcA fteam from a fmall boiler, and expel ail the air out of this veffel ; turn the coek^
and it will run into the condsnfer and be condenfed. By repeating this a vacuum may be
eafily made, and kept up in the worm and top of the ftill, and the fpirits will probably come
cffwith half the heat and fuel ufually expended.

Tikis is about to be put in jA-aftice to try the experiment.

APPENDIX.

EXAMPLE IV.
VTake the Art of ventiify Smoke from Rooms by Chimneys,

STEP I. The principles are : Heat, by repelling the particles of air to a greater dif-
$ance, being lighter than cold, will rife above it, forming a currrent upwards, with a ve-
locity proportional to the degree and quantity of heat, and fize of the tube or funnel of the
chimney, through which it afcends, and with a power proportional to its perpendicular
height, which power to afcend will ahvays be equal to the diderencc of the weight of a co-
lunui of rarified air of the fize of the fmalleft part of the chimney, and a column of com-
mon air of equal fize and height.

II. What is the bell plan in theory for venting fmoke, that can be founded on thefe
principles?

lit. The f^e of the chiiTiney muiV be proportioned to the fize and clofenefs of the room
and lize of the fire; becaufe, if the chimney be immenfely large and the fire fma'l, there
will be no current upwards. And again, if the fire be large, and the chimney too fmall,
the fmoke cannot be all vented by it, more air being necellary to fupply the fire than can.
find vent up the chimney, it muil: fpread in the room again, which, after pafiing through
the fire and being burnt is fuffoeating.

2nd. The narrowed plice in the' chimney muft be next the fire, and in front of it, fo
that the fmoke would have to pafs under it to get into the room : the current will there be
greateft, a;id wiil draw up the fmoke biiikly.

3rd. The chimney mull be perfevUy tight, fo as to admit no air but at the bottom.

III. The errors in chimneys in common pravSlice are,
I ft. In making them viddeft at bottom.

r 2nd. Too large for the iize and clofenefs of the roam.

3rd. In not building them high enough above the wind whirling over the tops of houfes,
that blow clown them. '

4th. By lettiiig in air any where near the bottom, deftroys the current of it at bottom.

IV. The cures dire^ied by the principles and theory are,

ift. If the chimney fmoke on acco\int of being too large for the fize and clofenefs of the
room, open a door or window, and make a large fire. But if this be tooexpenlive, make
the chimney lefs at the bottom — its fize at the top will not be much injury, but will weaken
the power of alcent, by giving the fmoke time to cool before it leaves the chir.iney : the
room may be as tight, sad the fire as fmall as youpleafe, if the chimney be in p.oportion.

2nd. If it be fmall at the top and large at the bottoiii, there is no cure but to lellen it
at the bottom.

3rd. If it be too linall, which is feldom the cafe, ftop up the chimney and ufe a ftove—
it will be large enough to vent all the air that can pafs through a two inch hole, which is
large enough to kindle the fire in a ftove.* The chimneys built to put thefe theories in prac-
tice I believe are every where found to anfwer the purpofe. 'See Franklin's lettei» on
puokey chimneys. '

EXAMPLE V.

Take the Art of warming Rooms by Fire,

STEP. I. The principles of fire are too myfterious to be inveftigated here ; but the eTefts

ift. The fire rarlfiei tlie air in the room, which gives us the fenfation of heat or warmth.

2ad. The vvarmeft part being lightell, rifes to the upperinoft part of the rooni, and will
afcend tlirough holes (if there be any) to the room above, making it warmer than the one in
which the fire is.

* The quantity of fuel necelfary to warm a room, will ever be in proportion to the
quantity of air that afcends the chimney.

6 APPENDIX.

3rd. If the chimney bq open the warm air will fly up it firft, leaving the room emp;
ty, the cold air will then rufti in at all crevices to fupply its place, which k^eps the room
cold.

II. Confidering thefe prinsiples, what is the beft plan in theory for vi^arming i-ooms ?

ifl-. We mult contrive to apply the fire tofpend all its heat, to v/arm the air as it comes
in the room.

2nd. To retain the warm air in the room, and let the coldeft out firft to obtain a venti-
lation.

3rd. Make the fire in a lower room, conducing the heat through the floor into the up-
per one, and leaving another hole for the cold air to defcend to the lower room.

4th. Make the room perfectly tight fo as to admit no cold air, but all warmed as it
comes in. , .

5th. By flopping up the chimney to let no warm air efcape up it, but what is abfolutely
necelTary to kindle the fire— a hole of 2 fquare inches v/ili be luihcientfor a very large room.

6th. The fire may be kindled, by a current of air brought from without, not uiing
any of the air already warmed- If this theory, which is founded on true principles and
reafon, be compared with common praftice, the errors will appear — 'che difadvantages of
which may be evaded.

III. I had a ftove conftructed to put this theory as fully inpradlice as pofliblcj and have
found all to anfwer according to theory.

The operation and efFcfts are as follows, viz.

iflr. It applies the fire to warm the air as it enters the rosm, and admits a full and frelh.
fupply, rendering the room moderately w^rm throughout.

2nd. It efleftually prevents the cold air from preliing in at the chinks or crevices, but;
caufe 5 a fmall current to pafs outwards.

3rd. It conveys the coldeft air out of the room firft, confequently

4th. It is a complete ventilator, thereby rendering the room healthy.

5tli. The fire may be fupplied (in very cold weather) by a current of air from without,
that does not communicate with the warm air in the room.

6th. Warm air may be retained in the roem any length of ti ne, at pleafure ; circulating
through tlie ftove, the coldeft entering firft to be v/armed over again*.

7th. It will bake, foaft and boil equaiily v/ell with the cpmraoa ten plate ftove, as it has
a capacious oven.

8th. In confequence of thefe philofqphical improvements it requires not more than half
the ufiiai quantity of fuel.

Defcription of tlie philojophical and ventilating Stove.

It confifts of 3 cylindrJc or fquare parts, the greateft furrounding the leaft. See pl.3i.
fig. I. SF is a perfpefcive view thereof in a fquare form, fuppofed open at one fide, the
fire is put in at F, in the leaft part which communicates with the fpace next the outiide,
where the fmoke pafies to the pipe i — 5. The middle part is about 3 inches lefs every way
than the outfide part, leaving a large fpace between it and above the inner part for an
oven, in which the air is warmed, being brought in by a pipe B D between the joifts of the
fioor, from a hole in the wall at B, rifing into the ftove at D, into the fpace and even
furrounding the fire, which air is again furroundedby the fmoke, giving the fire a full a<?don
to warm it, and afcending into the room by the pipe 2, E brings air from the pipe D B to
blow the fire. H is a view of the front end plate, ftiewing the fire and oven doors. I is
a view of the back end, the plate being oif, the dark fquafe Jhews the fpace for the fire,
and the light part the air-fpace furrounding the fire, the dark outfide fpace the fmoke fur-
rounding the air ; tbefe are drawn on a larger fcaie. The ftove confifts of 1 5 plates, 12
of which jo;n on*; end againftthe front plate H.

To apply this ftove to the beft advantage, fuppofe fig. i, pi. X. to reprefent a 3 or 4
ftory houfe, 2 rooms on a floor — fet the ftove S ¥ in the partition on tfre lower floor, half
in each room ; pafs the fmoke pipe through all the ftories ; make the room very clofe ;

* This application was fuggeftedto me by Ifaac Garretfon, of York-town, on his viewing
the ftove and conlidering its principles whilft I had it making.

APPENDIX. 7

jel 110 air cuter but what comes in by the pipes AB or GC through the wall at A and G,
Uiatitmay be the more pure, and pafs through the ftovie and be warmed. But to convey
it to auy roem, and take as much heat as poffible with it-, there muft be an air-pipe lur-
rounding the fmoke- pipe, with a valve to open at every floor. Suppofe we wifh to warm
j the rooms No. 3 — ^■> '^^'C open the valves, and the warm air enters, afcends to the upper
(part, deprelles the cold air, and if we open the holes a — c it will defcend the pipes, and
. .'enter the ftove to be warmed again : this may be done in very cold weather. The higher
I the ro#m above the ftove, the more powerfully ^vill the warm air afcend and expel the
cold air. But if the room requires to be ventilated, the air muft be prevented from de-
fcending, by Ihutting the little gate 2 or 5, and drawing I or 6, and giving it liberty to
afcend and efcape at A or G — or up the chimney, letting it in clofe at the hearth. If the
warm air be conveyed under the floor, as between 5 — 6, and let rife in feveral places,
with a valve at each, it would be extremely convenient and pieafant ; or above the floor
;i=; at 4 — feveral perfons might fet their feet on it to warm. The rooms will be moderate-
ly warm throughout — a perfon will n»t be fenfibje of the coldnefs of the weather.

One large ftave of this conftruftion may be made to warm a whole houfe, ventilate the
t rooms at pleafure, bake bread, meat, &c.

Thefe principles and improvements ought to be confidered aad provided for in building.

E X A M P L E VL
Take the -.4rt of hulling and cleaning Rice,

} STEP I. The principles on which this art may be founded will appear by taking a hand-
i ful of rough rice, and rubbing it hard between the hands — the hulls will be broken off, and
I by continuing the operation the ftiarp texture of the outfide of the hull (which through a
i magnifying glafs appears like a fliarp fine file, and no doubt is deligned by nature for the
jpurpofe) will cut off the infide hull, the chaif being blown out, will leave the rice perfeftly

clean, Avithout breaking any of the grains.
I II. What is the beft plan in theory for eiTeclirtg this ? See the plan propofed, reprelent-

fA pi- X. fig. 2 — explained art. 103.

in. The diiadvantages of the old procefs are known to thdfe who have it to do.

EXAMPLE VII.

To fave Ships front finldng at Sea.

STEP I. The principles on which fhips float, is the difference of their fpecific gravities
from that of the water, bulk for bulk — linking only to difplace water equal in weight to the
Ihip; therefore they fink deeper in frefh than fait water. If we can calculate the cubic
feet a Ihip dil'places when empty it will (hew her weight, and fubtrarting that from what
Ihe difplaces when loaded, fhews the Meight of her load, each cubic foot of frefli water be-
ing 62,51b. If an empty rum hogfliead v/eigh 62,51b. and meafure 15 cubic feet, it will require,
875ib. to fmk it. A veliel of iron, &c. filled with air, fo large as to make its whole
bulk lighter than fo much water will float, but if the air be let out and filled with water
will fink. Hence we may conclude that Ihips, loaded with any thing that will float, will
not fmk, if filled with water ; but if loaded with aay thing fpecifically heavier than water,
will fink as foon as filled.

II. This appears to be the true theory — How is it to be put in praftice, in cafe a fliip
fprings a leak, that gains on the pumps ?

III. The mariner who underftands well the above principles and theory, will be led to
the follov/ing fteps.

ift. To caft ovei-board fuch things as M'ill not float, and carefully to referve every thing
that will float, for by them the fliip may at laft be buoyed up.

2nd. Empt)4 every caflc or thing that can be made water-tight, and putthejn in the hold
and fifths them down under the water, filling the vacancies between them v.'ith billets •£

I APPENDIX. i

wood, even the Ipars and mafts may be cut up for this purpafe in defperate cafes, whick
will fill the hold with air and light raat):er, and as foon as the water infide is level !
with that Outfide no more will enter. If every hogfliead buoy up 875'b. they Mail be a
great help to buoy up the Ihip (but care muft be taken not to put the empty caiks too low, :
which would overfet the fliip) and flie will float, although half her bottom be torn off.— -,
Mariners, for want of this knowledge often leave their fliips too foon, taking to their boat, i
although the Ihip is much the fafeft, and does not fink for a long time after being abandon- !
ed — not confidering, although the water gain on their pumps at firll, they may be able to '
hold way with it when rifen to a certain height in the hold, bccaufe the velocity with which ^
it will enter, will be in proportion to the fquare root of the difierence between the level of
the water infide and outfide — added to this the fuller the Ihip, the eafier the pumps vnW |
work, therefore they ought not to be too foon difcouraged.

E X A M. P L E VliL' ^

Take the Art of prejerving fruits ^ Liquors^ <^^c. from Putrer\
faCiion and Fermentation.

STEP. I. What are the principles of putrefatStion and fermentatipn?— By experiments
with the air-pump it has been difcovered that .apples, cherries, &c. put in a tight vefiel,
having the air pumped out, will keep theiv natural frefh bloom for a long time. Again, ,
by repeated experiments it is proved things frozen will neither putrify nor ferment while j
in that ftate. Hence we may conclude that air and heat are the principles or moving cauf- 1
es of putrefaftion and fermentation.

II. What plans in theory are moft likely to fucceed? — By removing the caufe5 we may
expeft to evade the effeft.

I. Suppofe a ciftern in a cellar be made on the fide of a hill, and fupplied by a fpring of
cold water running in at the top, that can be drawn off at the bottom at pleafure. If apples
&c. be put in tight vefTels, and the air pumped out, and beer cyder, &:c. be put in this cif-
tern, and immerfed in water, will they putrify or ferment.' May not the experiment fuc-
ceed in an ice-houfe^ and fruits be conveyed from one country to another in glafs or metal
vefTels made for the purpofe, with the air pumped out and hermetibally fealed.

In fupport of this hypothefis, a neighbour ef mine told me, he filled a rum hogfhead in
the fall full of apples at the bung, bunged it tight, and in the fpring found them all found ;
another, when a boy, buried a hollow gum bee-hive full of apples, trampled the earth tight
about them, opened them when the wiieat began to ripen, and found them all foynd, .but
leaving them, returned in a day or two, and found them all rotten*.

l^or thofe to Read who have Leifurc
BY the right ufe of natural Phiiofophy and Rearon,aiclec|
by Experiments, many improvements might be made that
would add much to the conveniences and comforts oflife-
But the great obftacle is the expenfe of i-xperiments, in rcr
ducing theory to praftice, which few will rifque. — For
when a man attempts to make any improvements, he is fure
to be ridiculed until he fucceeds, and then the invention is
often depreciated — Dotlor Franklin faid — that " a man's ufe-

* Much contained in this appendix is to be found in different authors ; and feveral
things, which I thought had originated with myfelf, have been treated of by Dr Fraaklin.

OF SAW-MILLS. $i

fill inventions fubjedls liim to infult, robbery, and abufe" —
but this I have as yet experienced only from 2 or 3 indivi-

daals from whom it was leaft to be expected 1 am firmly

perfuaded, that if in any country th;? fmall fum of

dollars annually, v/as aiHgned to reduce to pradlice proba-
ble theories, the arts would rife in improvement beyond a-
ny precedent that hiftory can evince ; and the power and

wealth of the nation in proportion For a long lift of

inventions in theory might be given that offer fair to be ve-
ry ufeful in praftice, that lie dormant until the inventor
pan make experiments with convenience, to reduce them to
practice — many of which no doubt will die with the invent-
ors.

Senfible of the expence, time, labour and thought, that
this (tho' fmallj work has coft me, and hoping it may be well
received by, and prove ferviceable to my country — I wait
to fee its fate ; and feel joy at being ready to fay

FINIS.

]ommtmicatio]i, — The follow^ing Eflay on Saw-mills,
&c. I received from WILLIAM FRENCH, Mill-
wright,Burlington county, (New-Jerfey) fince I con-
cluded, and fearing I may not have another opportu-
nity, I publifh it.

j^AVv''-MILLS have been much improved in this State, for low heads. Mills with two faw*
\J with not more tlian 7 feet head and fall, have fawed 5 and 6 hundred thoufand feet of
joards, plank and fcantling, in one year. If the water L^ ^,..: "'^ the wheel in a proper man-
er, and the wheel of a proper fize, (as by the following tablej the {?vr will flrike between
|30 and 130 ftrokes in a minute : See fig. i plate XIV. The lower edfi;e of the breaft-beam
,; to be 3-4 the height of the wheel, and i inch to a foot, flanting up ftream, faftened to the
jcnftock-pofts with Icrew-bolts, (fee pofl: A) circled out to fuit the wheel C ; the fall D circled
1) fuit the wheel and extended to E, z inches a-bove the lower edge of the breaft-b'eam, or
'igher, according to the fize of the throat or fluice E, with a fliuttle or gate Hiding on F E,
i^uttlng againil the brcafl-beam B : then 4 buckets out of 9 will be adlred on by the water.
I'he method of faftening the buckets or floats is, to ftep them in ftarts mortifed in the fliaft —
i:e dart G — 9 buckets in a wheel 4 1-2 inches wide, fee them numbered I, 2, &c.
i Fig. 2 is the go-back, a tub-wheel. Its common fize is from 4 i-2 to 6 feet diameter, with
ijj buckets. The water is brought on it by the trunk H. The bucket I is made with a long
:aon fo as to faflen it with a pin at the top of the wheel.

lo OF SAW-MILJLS.

TABLE cf the Dimenfions of Flutter-wheels *
Head 12 ft. Bucket 5 ft. Wheel 3 ft. Throat i 3-4 inch-i

10 6 3 . 2i

9 6|- 210 inches. 2^

8 7 29 2-|-

7 7-i: 28 3^

6 8 2 7P- 3t

5 9 26 3|.
N* B. The crank about 1 1 inches, but varies to fuit the timber^
The Pile Engine ^

Fig. 3 a fimplc machine for driving piles in fofi: bottoms, for fctting mill-walls or dams on.
It confifts of a frame 6 or 7 feet fquare, of fcantling, 4 by 5 inches, with 2 upright ports' 5
inches apart, 10 or i2 feet high, 3 by 3 inches, braced from top to bottom of the frame, witl"
a cap oh top 2 feet long, 6 by 8 inchesj with a pulUe in its middle for a rope to bend ove?
faftened to a block I, called a tup, which has a pieces 4 inches wide between the uprights
with a piece of 2 inch plank '1 , 6 inches wide, framed on the ends, fo as to Hide up and dowi
the upright pofts S. This machine is worked by 4 or 6 men, drawing the tup up by the flick
faftened to the end of the rope K, and letting it fall on the pile L. : they can ftrikc 30 or 4'i
ftrokes by the fwing of their arms in a minute.

Of building Dams on foft Foundations *

The beft method is, to lay 3 fills acrofs ftream, and frame crofs fills in them up and doAv:
ftream, fettingtlie main mud-fills on round piles, and pile them with 2 inch plank, well joint
ed and drove clofe together edgs to edge, from one to the other end. By takng one come
©tFof the lower end of the piank will caufe it to keep a clofe joint at bottom, and by driving a
iron dog in the raud-fiJl,and a v/ooden wedge to keep it clofe at the top end will hold it t
its place v.'hen the tup ftrikes. it is neceflary to pile the outfide crofs fiUs ahb in fome boi
torn?, and to have v/ings to run i»')r 12 feet into the bank at each fide; and the v.ing-pof

2 or 3 feet higher than the poftsof the dam, where the water falls over, planked to the to
NN, and filled with dirt to the piste O.

Pig. 4 is a front view of the brcaft of the tumbling-dam.

fig. 5 is a fide view of the frame of the rumbling-dam, on its pilinga b c d c, and f g h is tl
end of the mud-fills. The pofts k are framed into the main mud-fills with a hook teno
leaning down ftream 6 inches in 7 feet, fupported by the braces 11, framed in the crofs fills
the crofs fills I to run 25 feet up and down uream, and be well planked over ; and tl
breaft-pofts to be planked to the top(fee P fig.4)aad tilled v»'ith dirt on the upper fide with
12 or 1 8 inches of the plate O : (fee Ofig. <) llanting to cover the up ftream ends of the fi

3 or 4 feet deep. R reprefents 'the water.

When the heads are high it is beft to plank ihe braces for the w-ter tr> run do\vn,but
low, it may fall perpendicularly on the fheetin^'.

-'fl

aegragajiipeB^

:Hi,-

-y

r '.-T ' r^-r-^ I ' i ' i 'T' I ' \ ' r^

ills,, ,

■'-■i.i;^j.'_MjBr'S'

L I ST

OF THE

S U BSCRIBERS' NAMES.

GEORGE WASHINGTON, Prefident of the United States,

THOMAS Jerteifon, late Jonathan Trumbull, ditto
Se_:eLary of Stale Jerem'ah Wadlwoith, ditto

jEuiniind Kando.ph, Secretary Ifrael Smith, Vermt nt
of bcaLe J- E- Van Allen, New-Vork

__^ Theodorus Bailey, ditto

Philip Van Coruandt, ditto
Se^mtors. p^^^^ y^^ Gaafbeck, d.tto

John langdon, New- Hampfhire Henry Glenn, ditto
Aaron Burr, New-York James Gordon, ditto

John I^utherFord, New-Jerfey John Beaty, New-Jerfey
Robert Morns, Pennfylvaiua Wiiliam Fmdiey, Pennfylvania
Benjamin Hawkins, North-Ca- Thomas Hartley, ditto
rolina Richard Thomas, ditto

A. Marcin, ditto Daniel Heiiler, ditto

Ralph Izard, South-Carolina John W. Kittera, ditto
James Jackfon, Georgia William Montgomerry, ditto

Henry Latimer, Delaware

„ .,. . George Dent, Maryland

Reprejentafives. gamuel Smith, ditto

Jeremiah Smith, New-H3mp- Thomas Sprig, ditto

fh're Thomas Claiborne, Virginia

3avid Cobb, Maffachufetts William B. Giles, d tto

Dwight FoRer, ditto Carter B. Harrifon, ditto

William Lyman, ditto John Heath, ditto, 2 copies

Theodore Sedgwick, ditto Richard B. Lee, ditto

Peleg Wadfworth, ditto James Madifon, ditto

Uriah Tracy, Connedicut Henry Tazeweil, ditto

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Andrew More, ditto
John Nicholas, ditto, 2 copv
John Page, ditto
Francis Prefton, ditto, 2 cop.
Robert RiitHerford, ditto
' Abraham Venable, ditto, 2 cop.
Francis Walker, ditto, 3 cop.
Alexander D. Orr, Kentucky
Chridopher Greenup, ditto
Thomas Blount, North-Caroli-
na
William J. Dawfon, di.tto
James Gillefpie, ditto
William Barry Grove, ditto
Nathaniel Macon, ditto
Jofeph M 'Dow el, ditto
Lemuel Benton, South Carolina
Andrew Pickens, ditto
Abraham Baldwin, Georgia'
James White
Jofeph Wheaton, ferg. at arms

Setiators of Pennfylvania,

Wm. Bingham, 2 cop.

Samuel Fortieth wait

George Wilfon

Thomas Jenks

John Canan, Lindfey Coats

Rep reje n ta fives .

George Latimer, Speaker
Benj. Carpenter, Luzerne, P.
Robert Wain, Johri Shoemaker
Jacob Morgan, 2 copies
Matthias Barton
William Wallace
George Hughes.

James Poe
John Cunningham
Roger Kirk, Jonas Preftoii
Samuel Dale, William Sterrett
Robert Frazer, Prefley Neveit
James M'Farlane ''

James Martin, Sergeant at Arm&
Note. — ^The following lift
eame in too late to be alphabet-
tically arranged.
Alexander Robinfon, Frede-
ric, y.
Jofeph Perkins, ditto
Henry Lee, Governor of Vir-
ginia, Major-Generai, &c.
Mofes Hunter, Colonel, V.
Thomas Mathews, Brigadier-
General, Norfolk, ditto
Wm. Dark, ditto, Berkley, ditt»|
Henry Rufh, Winchefter, ditt
Ignatius Parry, Frederic, diti
James M'Alifter, Wilmington|

N. Carolina
Daniel Morgan, Major-Gene

ral, V.
Griffin Taylor, ditto
James Lebas, Frederic, M.
James Booth, George Booth
F. Thornton, Frederickfburg,V
Mofes Hill, M. w. Germantown .;
Samuel Howel, Kent, Del. i
James Greenway, Denwidie, VJ
Francis Epps, Chefterfieid, do»-|
Samuel Venable |

Jofeph Yarborough, Lunen*?

burg, V.
Thomas Vaughen, ditto.
Jacob Mayer

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

LEXANDER Anderfon, Phila
Charles Anderfon, Del. 6 copies
Thomas Arnold, Rhode Ifland
John Allen, m. W. BalthKore
IvL Armond, Rockingham, V-
Robert Alford, ditto
Samuel Adams, Fairfax, ditto
Keuben Allen, Richmond
Philip Apple, Northampton, P-
1 heodorick Armiftead, Peterfburg
j Ephraim Arnold, M- "^v^- Columbia

Wm. Backett, Gloucefter, J'
James Alexander. Summerfet, J.
David Brandwin, jun. Elfex, ditto
John Bartholomew, m. v/. Summer -

fet, ditto
Hudfon Burr, Burlington, ditto
Jofeph Burr, ditto.
J. Baker, M. w. Northampton, P
William Briggs, Charter, ditto
Charles Beaty, George Town, ditto
D. Bartholomew, Lancafter, ditto
Samuel Bye, Bucks, ditto
Nathaniel Burrus, ditto ditto
John Blair Hundington, ditto

'Richard Becking

Jofeph Becking

Jacob Broom, XVilmington, Del.

! James Brindley, ditto.

Brynberg and Andrews, ditto.

J. Beale Bordley, Phila. 4 cop.

Owen Biddle, ditto

Francis Bailey, ditto

Thomas Bedwell, ditto

Benj. Franklin Bache, ditto

Daniel Breautigam, ditto 6 cop

Wm. Ball, M. w.

Samuel Baker, city of V/araington

Thos. Broom, Cambden, S. C

Adam Boftyon, Frederick, ditto

Taverner Beale, Shanadoah, ditto

Marfhal Booker, ditto

John Brander, Chelterfield, ditto

John Baird, Peterlburg

Bate, Saunders, and Co. ditto 2 cop.

Wm. Bird, Alexandria

John i^all, M. \v.

George Battan, m. w. Brandywine

Richard Baker, M. w. P.
C

Nicliolas Colin, R. S. C Phila.

Mathew Carey, 14 cop. ditto

George Clymer, ditto
Jofeph Cruckihank, ditto

Tench Coxe, ditto.

Jofeph Capelle, Wilmington, D.

Robert Coram, ditto

Wm. Coach, New-Caftle, ditto

Samuel Canby, Brandiwine mills

James Cloud, M. w -ditto

John Clendinnin, Dauphin, P.

Benj. Carpenter, Luzerne, ditto

Wm. Crook, Bucks, ditto

Peter Cornelius, Hundington, ditto

JelTe Croiby, Cecil, M.

Geo. Caldwell, Bladenfburg, ditto

R. Crompton, ditto ditto

Lewis Coircle, Rockingham, V.

Hugh Cunningham, Berkley, ditto

David Carlifle, Winchefter, ditto

Ervin Cameron, Chefterfield, ditto

John Crawford, Peterlburg, ditto

Arabrofe Clark, ditto

Ofwald Brooke, Prince George, M. John Clarke, M- w. Richmond, ditto
Anthony Berd, Bladenlburg, ditto J- Cowperthwaite,New-Egypt, J.
Jonas Bleaney, Hartford, ditto
Thomas Broom, Elkeon, ditto
Hugh Burns, Rockingham, V.
B. Beeler, Berkley, ditto
Wm. Bell, Falmouth, ditto

T. Brown, M- v/. Albemarle, ditto Thos. Dobfon, Phila. 25 cop.
James Brov,n,?.i. w- Stanton, ditto Wm- Davidfon, ditto

Micajah Crew
James F. Cufack
I. C Cock
R. D. Conte, M.
D

SUBSCPvIBERS^ NAME8.

Be DuiBeld, ditto David Everitt, J.

John Dunlap, ditto Jo^^^^ Evans, M.

Eenj. Davies^ ditto Elias Ellicott, ditto

A. 1. Dallas, ditto Jofepli Eaton, Hundington,

Jofeph Dutton, M. W' Brandywine F

mills Andrew Fifher, New-Caftle, D.

Jacob Derickfon, M. W. ditto Wni. Foulk, ditto

George Davis, M- W- ditto Thomas Foulk, Wilmington, D-

John Dickinfon, Wilmington, Del. Mofes Foreman, Elk, M.

2 cop. Wm. Frailey, Rockingham, V.

James Douglafs, Suflex, ditto Beal Fowler

Jonathan Dorr, Walhington, N. M. Fackler, Stanton, V.
York. F. Fulk, Shanadoah, V-

Charles Dilworth, Chefter, P. Michael Fackler, V.

Solomon Drown, Fayette, ditto Tliomas Frazer, Peterfbnrg,V.

John Doan, Backs, ditto Thepphilus Field, Brunfwick, V.

Wm. Dayley, Hundington, ditto Adam Frailey, M. w-
Edward Dawes, M. W. Eaiton, ditto Enoch Francis, M- w. Loudon, V.
Henry DoJerow, M- w. ditto James Finley, Fayette, P.

James Dellet, M. w. S. Carolina, 6 Hugh Forfman, Northampton, P.

cop. David Forft, Bucks, ditto

Gewis Claleron Davis, M. w. Staf Beuj- Flowers, m- w- York, P.
ford, V. Richard French, Burlington, J.

Robert Bunbarr, Winchefter, ditto Wm- French, Hanover
Jofeph Dean, ditto John Falkingburg, Mifflin, P-

D. Douglafs, Falls of Difficult, ditto G

James and Leonard Deneal, ditto, 2 Wm. Gibfon, m. w- V.

cop. James Gibbons, Chefterfield, V-

Solomon Dedig, ditto James M. Gibbons, Chefter, P.

Lev/is Dennis, M. w. Hundertoa, J. Wm. Gibbons, Phila.
Jarus Dod, ElTex, ditto Aihbel Green, ditto

Philip Doran, Hartford, M. Michael Gunckle, ditto

Henry S. Drinker for S. Preflon Jolhua Gilpin, ditto

Robert Dantliat Thomas Goucher, ditto

Samuel and William Davis Thomas Greeves, ditto

E John Gartley, ditto

John Ewing, Phila. Benjamin F. Garrigues, ditto

John Elliot, Stanton, D. J^^^"^ Gramer, Peterfourg, V.

George Evans, junr. Richard Groves, V.

Thomas Ellicott, Bucks, P. 150 c. John Gray, Port Royal, V.
Jacob Edinburg Richard Goodrich

Charles Evans, New-Caftle, D- Amos Grandine, Jerfey

John Evans, Lancafter, P. Samuel Gordon, ditto

R. Evans, flour infpcfter, Peterfburg Samuel Galbraith, New-Caftle, D-

Virginia, 10 cop. Ifrael Gilpin, Kentucky

Nathaniel Ellicott^ditto John Gilpin, M.

|i,van Evans, M. w- V. 144 cop. Jphn Gill, Alexandria, V. 3 cop.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

James Galaway, Mifflin, P. James Houilon, ditto

Henry Geddis, New-Port, D. Philip Haxall, ditto

Nathaniel Grnbb, M. w. P. ggj.,: pjoQ^j^ ^^ ^ ditto

Wm. Green New.- York, 6 cop. ^^^^^^ Hollinglworth, Haiti-

Ilaac Garritlon, York- i own, r. ■., ^

Benjamin Tues Gilman, Marieita,on ^^}^^^^' ^^^' __

the Ohio. Wm. Hartlhorne, V. 2 cop*

Tj John Glafeford Henderfon, ditto

i Malem Hough, ditto.

I Jofeph Henry, Hydrauhcian, Hifpa- Jofeph Hilb, George Town, Po-

\ Jofeph Harlan, M. W. M. „/°"^f J^' ^' . ,.

' Jofeph Hoffinger, M. Wm. Hartfhorn jun. m. w. V.

I George Hinkfon, Delaware, P. Wm. Holdernefle, Phila.

I John Hayes, Wilmington, D. 5 cop. Samuel Hanaway, Fayette, P.

■ Levi Hollingfworth, Elkton, M. Ifaac Hance, Morris, J.

I Samuel Hollingfworth, Brandywine Ralph Plunt, SuiTex, ditto

' Chriftopher Hope, Chefter, P. p^^i Howel, Orange, ditto

Wm. Henry Nazareth, P. j^^^^ ^^^^ Hunderton, ditto

' Levi HolhnsTiworth, rhila. 12 cop. ^i i tj c /r jv^-^

u 11 <? en T)u■^ Abraham Haver, bullex, ditto

Hall & Sellers, Phila. i tt- • tj ^r j A/r

Edmund Hogan, ditto. Bazeleed Higgms, Hartford, M,

I'uchard H. Morris, Phila. Jofeph Harrold, Bucks, P.

Simon Hadley, Stanton, D. 12 cop. Jofeph Hart, ditto.
Jofeph Holland, Montgomery, P. Richard Harcomb, ditto
Wm. Hagy, ditto J

George Hellembold, ditto Samuel Jackfon, Red-done, P. %/

Daniel Hendrickfon,Shrewlberry, J. Loyd Jones, Montgomery, P-

Henry Hofhall, ditto. Jofeph , Dinwidie

Benjamin Hinton, Rockingham, V. Rjnaldo Johnfon, M.

John Hite, ditto Wm- Johnfon, ditto

aenry Hubble, M- w. P. 12 cop- Richard Jones, Nottaway, V.

Adam Hinchman, Elk, M. Abel Janey, Frederic V.

tames Harrold, M. W. Bucks, P. Richard Jones

Handy and M'Cormick, V. John Jackfon, Fayette, P-

Eli Hunt, M. w. Frederick, ditto Jonas Ingham, Bucks, ditto

Senj. Harris, Albemarle, ditto Jofeph , m. \v. Luzerne, P-

Jofeph I-Iunt, Winchefter, ditto J^^" Jo^es, Montgomery, P.
Cut4ertHarrifon, V. ^^J^^'^^ J«"^^^ Burhngton, J.

,, , • 1 TJ -n 1 T,, W m. 1 rick, ditto

.'rederick Heiikel, ditto ,.r -. , / i\/^;f£i;,-, t>

. ,. Wm. Jenkins, iVi,ii.i:n, 1 ^

" Jonn Hamourg, ditto j^^^,, Eyeriy, Junr.
George Hite, ditto X

Wm. I-ioliday, ditto Nicholas Koiph, Wifsahickon

Richard Harrifs, ditto Patrick Kelly, m. w- and mill-fione
Plumer Harrifs, ditto maker, Phila.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Michael Rufh, Btirlingto.n
John Recklefs, J.
Richard Roberts, Hundington, P.
Charles Reich'el,' Nazareth, P.
John Ramfey, M.
S
Wm. Sherlock, Northanipton,P,
Ifaac Swartfwood, ditto
George Stroud, m. w. Delaware
Jarpes Stroud, Stanton, ditto
Robert Seeders, M.
Alexander Smith, Kentucky, 3 c.
John Smith, Phila.
Nathan & David Sellers, do. 2 c,
Ifrael Supplee, ditto
Samuel H. Smith, ditto
Abraham Smith, Bucks, P.
Henry Scheets, ditto
John Snap, V.
Thomas Smith, ditto
Robert Sliaw, ditto
Edward Smith, V.
Wm. Shields, V.
John Service Phila.^
Samuel Shill, V.
Ebenezer Stott & co, Peter{burg

2 cop.
Wm. ScQtt
Jofeph Scott
Aaron S^;hoheld, M\
James Speak, P.
Wm. Smith, & co. M-
Ifacher Schoheld, ditto
John Scott, Fairfax, V.
James &: David Sterrett, Lancaii.
James Smith, m. w. Odarara
Anthony Shoemaker J.
Jofeph Strickland m. v/. ditto
John Stevenfon, Hunderton, J.
Thomas Smith, m. vv. M.

Jofeph Sherrerd, Hunderton,
Jerfey

Aaron Stout, ditto

Richard Standefer, m. w. M,

F. Shutz, Montgomery, P.

Wm. Sheldon, ditto

Wm. Sitgreaves, J.

Chriflopher Snyder, ditto

Adam Sharrah, Hundington, P.

Richard Smith, ditto

Jofeph Smith, ditto

Valentine Stroup, m. w. Read-
ing, 24 cop. Subfcription lift
miflaid

C. P. 2 cop.

Matthias Slaymaker, D.
T

Richard S.Thomas, M.

Jeffe Tyfon, ditto

Thomas Tovi^n, m. w. Phila„
6 cop.

Benj. Tunis, m. w. P. 6 cop,

Daniel Tremble, Del. works

Peter Thomas, P.

Benj. Tbomfon, V.

Henry Thring, ditto

Morris Trueman, Delaware, P.

Andrew Tlielfa, M.

William Frazier

jofeph Tidball, V.

John B. Tildon, ditto

William Tatham

Ambroie Timmons, V.,

Samnel Todd, ditto

George Trotter, ditto

John Taie

Robert Torrance, Brunlwick

Eliflia Tyfon, Baltimore

John Tagart, ditto

jofeph Timbcrlakc, V.

SUBSC KIBE lis' NAMES.

Johi.i Tenbrook, J. Wm. C. Williams, Shaiiadoali

George Teneick ditto P. Williams, ditto

Caleb Taylor, ditto Baziel Wood

John Toy, ai. w. ditto. Thomas Whitlaw

V Jofeph Walker

John Vaughan, Phila. Jofeph Wiwqrer, V.

Nicholas Vanftavern, m. w. James Wardrope, Ampthill-
Abraham Van Camp, m. w. J. mills

George Vickers. M. T. Watfon, Prince Edward C.

W JefTe "Walker, M. w.

Tliomas Wallace, New-caflle Abner Wickerlliam, m. W.Y.

Benj. WiUbn, Cecil, M. Pvichard Winchefter, M.

John Wain, Phila. Daniel Wampler, m. w. ditto

Richard W^aters, m. w. M. Polydore, B. WeiFner, J.

William Woodhoufe, Phila. George Wain, Bucks, P.

Samuel Wheeler, ditto Paul Wooley, m w. J.

Bencroft W^oodcock, Del. Ai'eph Warner, Hartford, IVJ.

Warner Wafhington, V. Denifs Wheelen, P.
Larkin Wright, Madifon, ditto Chalkley Willets

Benj. Webb, John Whitehead, m. w. J,

^ Many fubfcription lifts have not been returned at the time ap-
' pointed, they fhall, neverthelefs, if fent in foon befuppliedat 53
cents lefs than non fubfcribers, the difference at firft conteraplat-
ed. But as the work has exceeded 500 pages including 26 plates,
inflead 05350 including 2o plates, as promifed ; and every way
exceeded in expencethe calculation — thofe gentlemen, who have
lubfcribed largely, purely to encourage the work, are at liberty to
take what part of their fubfcription they pleafe. No books will be
fc kept longer than fix months for fubfcribers.

|„ Errors that may he correded ivith a Pem

\ PART r.— Tn line 3 from the bottom of page 2, for art 3c— read 13.

Page 79 iiie 2, for Overfliot— read undershot.
fj^ , b( line 4, for equal pre Ifures— read unequal.
V 121 lines i and 2, for -with their — read of.

■;. 144 line 6 of the note, for it is — -read was.

IP \RT II.— In page 25 line 2 3, for 1 2 — read 30.
Pagi 162 line ^ , for ;oiter — .ead fafler.
PAilT v.— In page 5 'ine id, for being the iirfl.— read being on« of the firft;
■ Page 22 line 27, for i : — read 1 1.

4y line 5, for thick— i-ead wide.

^DVERTISEM^ENT.

THE AUTHOR keeps for Sale

A good affbrtment of imported and Ame-^
rican manufaftured bolting cloths. He will fupply thofe
who apply to him, with. Mi ll-Stotws , Bolting-Cloths y Rolling-
Srreens, Iron work. Stones for Gudgeons, Sec. compleat for
merchant or country mills, all warranted good and fuita-
ble for the purpofc. — He plans and draughts for building
mills containing his patented improvements, defciibed part
IV. with all their wheels proportioned to fuit the fall and
quantity of water, fo as to receive the grain from the wag-
gon orihip and pafs it through all the neceffary operations
by water, and compleatly manufafture it ready for pack-
ing for fale — this he finds can be done with about half the
number of wheels ufually applied to produce the fame ef-
fed, and the houfe may be more conveniently conflrucled
for doing the buiinefs.

It is not necefl'ary that he fiiould fee the feat but have on-
ly a flight draught of the fituation of the ftream, roads,
height of the banks, <&:c. with the exacTr fall of the water,
fand quantity, if fcarce, as directed, art. 53. Thofe who
choole to adopt any part of the faid improvements after this
date may by fending a line directed to him in Philadelphia

receive in SLufwer permiilion to build and ufe them one year
at the expiration of which they may obtain a permancni
privilege by paying the ites to either of the foJiowirg gtn'
tlejnen, who arc legally authorifed togrant the famt, viz,
Samuel Reynolds, Mill-vvright Albany ; William Byrnes,
New-Windibr, State of New-York; Thomas Ellicott,
Bucks, Pennfylvania ; Elias Ellicott, Baltimore ; Elilha
Janey, Alexandria; John Moody, Richmond; Nathanie]
Ellicott, Peter fburg; Simon Hadley, North Carolina; James
Dellet, Pvlili-wright, Georgetown, S. C. ; or Evan ii,vans
Mill-wright, who makes it his particular bufinels to intro^
dace and build them. — The preient prices are, for the whole
of the improvements, 40 dollars for each water-wheel.
to which they are applied, grinding with but one pair of
floncs at once ; for t parts, 30 dollars ; for -^ part, 20 dol-
lars ; the remainder of the 40 dollars to be paid at adopt-
ing the whole : Elevating and conveying grain is ^, dittc
of the meal-^ ; and cooling the meal and attending tiie bolt-
ing hoppers -^ part. '1

February 2T^rd, 1795. -|

CERTIFICATE.

HEREAS Robert Dawfon hath eftabliflied in Wilming-
ton a manufaiftory of bolting doths, and being deliiouj
to have them recommended to the public, ha.- fubmitted to ourJ
examination forae of each kind, (thty aifo having been tried by|
feverai millers at ths place. ) iWe who are fublcnbers are wil-
ling to certify that thcfe we have^ad experience of, or have feeri
tried, have ahfwered well all the purpoies of imported clochsJ
and as the fiJi, as well as mafiufaclure, is of our own country,!
it is ourcpinicn that they' 0U'|,ht to obtam a decided preference
to chofe faDriCated .ia any fo/eign country.

f " SAMUEL CANBY,
(Signed) { " TATNALL er LEA,
T' SHIPLEY dr POOLE.'

Brandy7vine Mills ^ iitliMo, ^th, 1794-

V 17

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Full text of "The young mill-wright & miller's guide. In five parts--embellished with twenty five plates .."

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